For over two thousand years, various dynasties ruled over China. No other government system in the world lasted as long as the imperial Chinese rule. Dynasties, or ruling houses, were said to be given the Mandate of Heaven, the right to rule by the gods. When the emperors fell out of favour (shown by natural disasters, rebellions etc), then the gods would send a new ruling house to govern China, ensuring the empire would continue.
Each dynasty became a role for the Chinese people – the achievements and accomplishments that occurred during its rule were something for the people and the emperor to learn from. The traditional picture for most people is a united country unchanging through the centuries. Unfortunately, this reality is flawed – China’s history is fractured by reality.
The Xia Dynasty (c. 2200 – 1600 BCE)
Long thought a mythical dynasty there is increasing archaeological evidence to confirm that the Xia dynasty did actually exist. The founder of the dynasty, Yu, is still shrouded in myth. Legends state that he was given the authority to rule by Shun “who also received rule non-hereditarily and without violence; but the Xia were overthrown by the Shang and all subsequent dynasties were founded by overthrow and continued hereditarily”. The last ruler of the Xia dynasty was Jie who was overthrown by Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty. This dynasty was said to be a time of peace and prosperity.
The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – 1122 BCE)
The Shang dynasty was founded by Tang who asserted his claim to rule by stating that the Xia had lost the favour of the Lord on High, thereby losing the Mandate of Heaven. Around 30 emperors ruled and in this time bronze manufacturing became a hallmark of their dynasty (although it should be stated that bronze work was probably developed before their rule). The worship of ‘The Lord on High’ was introduced; he presided over all the other gods and humans on earth. Human sacrifices were no longer performed and the foundations of Chinese writing were established.
The Zhou Dynasty (Western Zhou 1122 – 770 BCE, Eastern Zhou 770 – 255 BCE)
The Zhou Dynasty can be divided into two periods, the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou. The Zhou had rose from the west and had violently overthrown the Shang dynasty, asserting their claim by “citing the precedent of a Xia Dynasty overthrown by the Shang and arguing that the mandate of Heaven is not constant”. They adopted the administration methods of the Shang and their way of life including their writing techniques. However, instead of ruling over a united country, they ruled over several less powerful kingdoms and developed something similar to that of a feudal system. It was this period that saw the introduction to the god Tian (heaven).
The Eastern Zhou period begins with the transfer of the capital eastwards to Luoyang (in Henan Province) were new cities were established. This was due to increasing pressure from nomadic raiders and internal pressures. This period can be further divided into two periods – the Spring and Autumn Annals (770 – 480 BCE) and the Warring States Period (480 – 221 BCE). Despite the constant warfare, this dynasty saw the development of agriculture, irrigations and ironworking.
The Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BCE)
The first imperial dynasty, Qin Shi Huangdi united China under his firm and tyrannical rule by establishing a series of victories over the Warring States. On his death, he was buried in his mausoleum and guarded by the famous terracotta warriors. His dynasty ended 14 years after its foundation, ending with his weak son. One Confucian writer stated the dynasty fell “because it failed to display humanity and righteousness, or to realise that there is a difference between the power to attack and the power to consolidate”. The truth is that the dynasty fell because it tried to do too much too soon and Shi Huangdi’s son was not as strong as his father. Although Shi Huangdi has been vilified by later dynasties, he has always remained the epitome for the power needed to rule over China.
The Han Dynasty (The Western Han 206 BCE – 9 CE, Wang Men Period 9 – 23 CE, The Eastern Han 25 – 220 CE)
The Han dynasty can be broken into three parts; the Western Han, the Wang Mang period and the Eastern Han period. Overall, this was the longest imperial dynasty. It was founded by a peasant man named Liu Bang and under the rule of Wudi the Silk Road was opened up which allowed for international trading from Europe across Asia. The period under the rule of Wang Meng has long been considered a time of usurpation by Chinese history. However, the facts are that he was a practical and well-meaning ruler but his policies led to problems with the establishment of the elite from the Han.
The Eastern Han period begins with the crowning of the rebel leader Liu Xiu who was renamed Guang Wudi. He moved the capital from Chang’an to Luoyang and established Confucianism as the foundation of his society. New crops were introduced and paper was first created in this period but the dynasty fell due to internal fighting.
Era of Disunity (220 – 581 CE) (This period includes the Three kingdoms Period, the Jin Dynasty, the Sixteen Kingdoms period and the Southern & Northern Dynasties).
Three Kingdoms Period (220 – 280 CE)
This era was part of the era known as the Era of Disunity. It saw the rise and fall of several kingdoms and was a time of great hardships, war, division, and economic distress. It also saw the mass movements of refugees from the north to the south to escape the constant wars and power struggles between the kingdoms. The three kingdoms were Wei (220 – 64 CE), Wu (222 – 80 CE) and Shu Han (221 – 63 CE).
The Jin Dynasty (265 – 420 CE)
The Jin dynasty was founded by Emperor Wu who offered a brief respite from the disunity experienced; however, it was not to last for the country soon delved back into chaos. The Jin dynasty can be divided into two periods; the Western Jin (265 – 316 CE) and the Eastern Jin (316 – 420 CE).
The Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304 – 439 CE)
This period saw the rise and fall of 16 kingdoms or states. It is known as one of the most devastating periods of time in Chinese history due to the constant warfare and hardships. Despite the foundation of the Northern Wei kingdom, it is not classed as part of the 16 kingdoms.
The Southern & Northern Dynasty (420 – 589)
The last in a series of divided rule, the Southern and Northern dynasty continued to be a period of political and civil chaos. Despite the constant disunity, this era also saw the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and the flourishing of arts. This period marks of the end of the Era of Disunity.
The Sui Dynasty (581 – 618 CE)
The Sui dynasty, founded by Duke Yang Jian (renamed Wendi) led to the reunification of China but only lasted for 40 years. During its reign, the emperors exhausted the treasury and experienced the disastrous attempts to annex Korea. It fell due to revolts and internal pressures.
The Tang Dynasty (618 – 908 CE)
Known as the Golden Age of Chinese history, the Tang period embarked on a series of expansion campaigns that stretched from Central Asia to Korea. Neighbouring countries acknowledged the strength and power of China and used their government as a model for their own. This was the period that saw its only female ruler, Wu Zetian. Porcelain became a speciality and was in demand all over Asia. However, the golden age did not last; during the mid 8th century there was a long rebellion that weakened the dynasty and growing internal pressures led to its downfall.
The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Dynasty (907 – 60 CE)
China fell into chaos once again. In this period of turmoil and pandemonium, there were a series of kingdoms and dynasties that quickly followed after each other. Five dynasties ruled north China and the south were carved up into ten kingdoms. Despite this, much of the social and administrative organization remained the same.
The Song Dynasty (The Northern Song 960 – 1126 CE, The Southern Song 1127 – 1279 CE)
The country was reunited once more under a dynasty that would also be divided in two. This period saw a reduction in the area under imperial rule but also saw the advancement in certain areas. These included agriculture, tea cultivation, textiles, urbanizations, and the spread of printing. The wealth achieved in this time was probably unequal to any other country on earth at the time. However, it could not withstand the armies of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan.
The Yuan Dynasty (1279 – 1368 CE)
The Mongolian dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan, the grandson of the great Genghis Khan. He managed to legitimise his rule by balancing out the foreign influences with Chinese terms. Arts flourished during the Mongolian rule but there was constant warfare, disease and natural disasters that led to its decline.
The Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE)
The last Chinese dynasty, the Ming era was marked by prosperity, especially in its early era. There was a huge population growth, literacy increased and the establishment of neo-Confucianism provided the foundation of a stable society. Later on, the fine arts would reach new heights. However, the extreme addictions of some Ming emperors cost China, both in administration and monetary wise. There were constant power struggles in the later Ming period and a series of floods, droughts, crop failures, natural disasters and invasions from the north led to the fall of the ruling house.
The Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912 CE)
The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchus, a nomadic people from the north. Theirs would be the last imperial dynasty but it was under them that some of the greatest Chinese works of art were produced. The Manchus adopted many aspects of Chinese government and formed a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural realm before the end of their reign. However, the Chinese saw their rulers as barbarians and there were serious social unhappiness. The dynasty ended with a series of mass humiliations caused by the Japanese and Europeans and the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China, by the empress dowager Cixi. This marks the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.
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