The Varna Cemetery

The accidental discovery of the Varna Cemetery (otherwise known as the Varna Necropolis) on the Black Sea coast of modern day Bulgaria has shed light onto the lives of the people in the vicinity and the burial customs they practiced.

When it was discovered in 1972, a mass of gold and other metals were uncovered, dating back to the 5^th and 4^th millennium BCE, and this was one of the many reasons why archaeologists flocked to the area to study the area. The majority of the gold discovered was in the form of gold beads, but other forms were discovered. One of the more famous items found was the penis sheath. Other items found included hammered sheet pectorals, and “the gold appliqués (often zoomorphic in form) with perforated edges for sewing onto the clothing of the deceased” (Scarre, p.403). According to scholars, many of the discoveries were decorations; some worn around the wrists or upper arms, pushed through holes in the lips or ears or sewn onto their clothing.

The fact that many of these items were highly prized decorative objects is particularly interesting. It has led to the theory that they were specially made for the purpose of burial and not for use while the person was alive. It indicates the method of how societies in this time were able to show the differences in social status.

It has been suggested by scholars that due to the richness of its treasures, especially the considerable quantity of gold jewellery, that these were the tombs of rulers. However, it should be stressed that there is no evidence at this time to back up this hypothesis.

Not all the graves contained a rich amount of grave goods. Indeed, while the majority have up to 10 items placed in the graves, there were 23 graves that contained none at all. Most interestingly, was the discovery of no skeletons in some of the graves, even though these were handsomely furnished with objects. These have been classed as ‘cenotaphs’ – a memorial to those whose body could not be found or buried in another location.

The Varna Cemetery offers us great insight to the growing complexity of communities in southeast Europe during the 5^th millennium BCE. While certain questions cannot be answered at this present time, the continual study of the Varna Cemetery will continue to provide unknown aspects of the Black Sea societies in the future.

Bibliography:

Scarre, Chris (2005) The Human past – Holocene Europe, Thames & Hudson, London.

Who Were the Hallstatts?

The Hallstatts were an ancient culture in Europe, from Western Europe to Eastern Europe. The Hallstatt culture has been dated to around c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE and emerged from the Bronze Age Urnfield culture. It is named after the town of Hallstatt when between 1846 and 1863, Johann Georg Ramsauer discovered a major cemetery belonging to it.

The Hallstatt culture has been divided into separate timeframes; Hallstatt A (1200 – 1000 BCE), Hallstatt B (1000 – 800 BCE), Hallstatt C (800 – 650 BCE) and Hallstatt D (650 – 475 BCE). The first two phases (A and B) are allocated to the broad Bronze Age epochs E and F in Central Europe and Hallstatt C and D to the Iron Age. It is then further divided into the Western Hallstatt and Eastern Hallstatt cultures.

Ancient cultures like the Hallstatts are somewhat difficult to recount their daily lives. However, archaeological excavations have revealed a mass of artefacts associated with these people so we can gain an insight into who they really were. In the final stages of the culture, cauldrons or deep bowls have been a typical find associated with them. They are generally equipped with one or two free-swinging handles and the pail either with horizontal, hydria-type handles, or the free-swinging handles. Designs on these types of objects are shown with water bird or the bird proteome with circle disk, which could indicate an Oriental influence according to scholars.

Much of what we know about the Hallstatt culture comes from the prehistoric salt-mines and the extensive cemetery which consists of over 1000 graves. In addition to this, no other culture can offer as much information into understanding temperate Europe at the time when iron first began to be used in Europe (around the seventh and sixth centuries BCE).

The bodies found had been either buried or cremated (roughly half and half in numbers). The skeletons of those who had been buried were sketched and then, unfortunately, thrown away by early scholars. Fortunately, the exact position of grave goods relative to the skeleton was often recorded and sketched. Experts believe that it was the elite social classes that preferred to be cremated rather than buried.

Trade appears to be an important aspect of the Hallstatt culture; the iron flat axe is a typical tool of theirs and distribution areas can be found in Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Bosnia. Trade of their items seems to have spread across most of western and eastern Europe, emphasising the importance of this remarkable culture.

Bibliography:

Foltiny, Stephen (19761) Athens and the East Hallstatt Region: Cultural Interrelations at the Dawn of the Iron Age, American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America.

Hodson, Frank Roy (1977) Quantifying Hallstatt: Some Initial Results, American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology.