The kingdom of Kaya was an important part in the history of Korea, although the kingdom itself was smaller than the other kingdoms that surrounded it. There has been some debate to whether Kaya was actually a kingdom or a confederation of city-states; for the purposes of this article I will refer it as a kingdom.
The Kaya kingdom was founded in around 42 CE in the southern Korean peninsula. According to literary texts, the foundation of the Kaya kingdom was very much steeped in mythology, as were other neighbouring kingdoms such as Silla.
The legend states that the land was ruled over by 9 chieftains, over a population of about 75,000. One day a group were washing themselves in a stream, preparing for a ritual. They heard a strange roaring voice calling them from the turtle-shaped mountains of Kooji-bong north of the stream. Only the sound like a voice of a human being was heard. The voice told them that he had been sent down from Heaven to rule over them. He told them to dig into the ground of Kooji-bong Mountain, dancing and chanting the incantation, "Turtle, turtle, stick out your head. If you don't, we'll roast and eat you.'
The people did as he asked, chanting the words given to them. Then they looked up toward the sky and saw a purple rope descending to the earth from Heaven. They went to it and found on the end of the rope a golden chest wrapped in a scarlet cloth. They opened the chest to find six golden eggs round as the sun. They were struck with delightful wonder and made a respectful bow to the eggs. They wrapped the chest again and took it to the house of one of the chieftains, Ahdokan, and placed it on a wooden bench (Song, p.84)
The next day, the people opened the chest to find that the eggs had turned into 6 golden boys who, after 10 days, had grown as tall as giants. One of these boys, Sooro, took the throne within a month, whose name means ‘First King of the Country’ and gave his name to the kingdom.
The archaeological remains of the Kaya kingdom represent the epitome of Korean Kobun culture - that is, burial mounds full of gold jewellery and artefacts imported from China and Central Asia (Pai, p.315).
Archaeological evidence has shown that the kingdom of Kaya had a thriving iron industry; a mass of armour, helmets and horse masks have been unearthed. It has been suggested that these finds could indicate that due to the small size of the Kaya kingdom, and the might of its neighbouring kingdoms, it underlies its need for self-defence.
The kingdom of Kaya was finally absorbed into the Silla kingdom in the 6th century CE, a conquest which marked the first step toward the uniting of the peninsula under Silla in 668 CE.
Bibliography:
Higham, Charles (2005) The Human Past – Complex Societies of east and Southeast Asia, Thames & Hudson, London.
Pai, Hyung II (1992) Culture Contact and Culture Change: The Korean Peninsula and Its Relations with the Han Dynasty Commandery of Lelang, World Archaeology, Taylor & Francis Ltd.
Song, Sun-hee (1974) The Koguryo Foundation Myth: An Integrated Analysis, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
Showing posts with label Korean history. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Korean history. Show all posts
Tuesday, April 05, 2011
Sunday, March 27, 2011
A History of Korean Funerary Rites
In all cultures across the world, funerary rites and traditions are very important once someone has died. In Korea, from antiquity to today’s contemporary society, the rites associated with death and funerals make up a very important element. This article will discuss the funerary rites surrounding the concept of ancestral belief in Korea.
In Korea, when a person is just about to die, he is taken to the warmer part of the house and into his deathbed. He is then dressed into a clean cloth called ch'ongo chongch’im and his family gather at his side. The Koreans believe that the time and place are important in the afterlife, just as the date and time of birth are important during a person's lifetime, and they go to great lengths to determine these as accurately as possible. If the dying individual has any last words, it is the child’s duty to record these.
Once the individual has died, all ornaments from the body are removed, the hair is loosened and the family weeps for the death of their loved one. One of the family members will then take the white upper garment that the deceased was wearing and then, facing north, climb onto the roof of the house. They will call out the name of the deceased in a loud voice, followed by the word ‘pok’ (which literally means ‘return’). After calling out in this way, they will pull the white cloth up onto the roof. This ritual is known as the “ko bok”, the calling back the spirit of the dead.
After this rite has been completed, the family will then prepare a feast for the messengers (saja) who will escort the deceased to the other side. Traditionally, this meal consists of three bowls of rice, vegetables, soy sauce, money and three pairs of straw shoes. It is positioned either in the middle area of the inside garden or outside the main gate of the house of the deceased.
The body of the deceased is then moved from his deathbed and onto a board known as the chilsong-p’an. The board “is the board of the deity of the seven stars, who controls the life of men”. The head is turned to the north and the thumbs are tied together with string, as are the two big toes. One of the children will then put on one sleeve of the upper garment – the right side if the deceased was his father, the left side if his mother. “A person experienced in these matters will make a spirit, called the honbaek with string or paper. If string is used three strings of different colours will be knotted together in a fixed form, and if the material is paper it will be a white paper folded in a fixed form. This knot, or folded paper as the case may be, is placed in a small box called the honbaek box, or “spirit box."
The word "hon" refers to the spirit or soul, and “baek" has the same meaning. Sometimes one of these words will be dropped, with either "hon" or "baek" appearing alone, and sometimes both words are used”.
The most important ritual is that of washing the body, known as “sup”. One of the mourners will bring a bowl of warm water mixed with mugwort or juniper and while either two or four people hold the corners of a blanket covering the deceased, the body is washed thoroughly with a piece of cotton or cloth soaked in the warm water. After this, the hair and fingernails will be cut and placed into four small bags known as choballang that are later placed into the coffin.
The deceased is then dressed in his funeral clothes. The person who is performing this rite will put “wet rice to the mouth of the deceased with a willow spoon, saying loudly, "a hundred sacks of rice" at the first spoonful to be held up, "a thousand sacks of rice" with the second spoon and "ten thousand sacks of rice" with the third”. After this a coin will be placed into their mouth. The body is then bound in a a long cloth known as yom. Relatives and friends of the deceased will place money into the twisted sections of the yom as it is believed that the paper money will be used when the deceased passes through the twelve gates of the otherworld.
The body is finally placed into his coffin and is covered with coverlets. “The corpse is laid on top of one of these, called the "coverlet of earth," and is covered with another, called the " coverlet of heaven." The deceased's old clothes will be put into the coffin next to the head and legs to fill the empty spaces. When the cover of the coffin is nailed down with wooden nails the offspring will weep loudly. The coffin itself is now bound with a straw rope around its upper, middle and lower parts”.
The last rite that is practiced is done when the coffin is taken out of the room. Four men will take the coffin and shake it slowly up and down toward the four corners of the room. When it is taken from the room a gourd will be destroyed in front of it, in the attempt to drive away evil spirits.
There are a number of different rites and rituals that are practiced in Korea when someone has died. The ritual of washing the body is the most important, as it is a rite of purification, cleaning the polluted body whereas the act of binding is one that symbolises separation. These rites have been practiced for generations and continue to be practiced, for it is believed that they will aid the spirit of the deceased to pass through the twelve gates of the otherworld and arrive in heaven.
Bibliography:
Lee, Kwang Kyu (1984) The Concept of Ancestors and Ancestor Worship in Korea, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
In Korea, when a person is just about to die, he is taken to the warmer part of the house and into his deathbed. He is then dressed into a clean cloth called ch'ongo chongch’im and his family gather at his side. The Koreans believe that the time and place are important in the afterlife, just as the date and time of birth are important during a person's lifetime, and they go to great lengths to determine these as accurately as possible. If the dying individual has any last words, it is the child’s duty to record these.
Once the individual has died, all ornaments from the body are removed, the hair is loosened and the family weeps for the death of their loved one. One of the family members will then take the white upper garment that the deceased was wearing and then, facing north, climb onto the roof of the house. They will call out the name of the deceased in a loud voice, followed by the word ‘pok’ (which literally means ‘return’). After calling out in this way, they will pull the white cloth up onto the roof. This ritual is known as the “ko bok”, the calling back the spirit of the dead.
After this rite has been completed, the family will then prepare a feast for the messengers (saja) who will escort the deceased to the other side. Traditionally, this meal consists of three bowls of rice, vegetables, soy sauce, money and three pairs of straw shoes. It is positioned either in the middle area of the inside garden or outside the main gate of the house of the deceased.
The body of the deceased is then moved from his deathbed and onto a board known as the chilsong-p’an. The board “is the board of the deity of the seven stars, who controls the life of men”. The head is turned to the north and the thumbs are tied together with string, as are the two big toes. One of the children will then put on one sleeve of the upper garment – the right side if the deceased was his father, the left side if his mother. “A person experienced in these matters will make a spirit, called the honbaek with string or paper. If string is used three strings of different colours will be knotted together in a fixed form, and if the material is paper it will be a white paper folded in a fixed form. This knot, or folded paper as the case may be, is placed in a small box called the honbaek box, or “spirit box."
The word "hon" refers to the spirit or soul, and “baek" has the same meaning. Sometimes one of these words will be dropped, with either "hon" or "baek" appearing alone, and sometimes both words are used”.
The most important ritual is that of washing the body, known as “sup”. One of the mourners will bring a bowl of warm water mixed with mugwort or juniper and while either two or four people hold the corners of a blanket covering the deceased, the body is washed thoroughly with a piece of cotton or cloth soaked in the warm water. After this, the hair and fingernails will be cut and placed into four small bags known as choballang that are later placed into the coffin.
The deceased is then dressed in his funeral clothes. The person who is performing this rite will put “wet rice to the mouth of the deceased with a willow spoon, saying loudly, "a hundred sacks of rice" at the first spoonful to be held up, "a thousand sacks of rice" with the second spoon and "ten thousand sacks of rice" with the third”. After this a coin will be placed into their mouth. The body is then bound in a a long cloth known as yom. Relatives and friends of the deceased will place money into the twisted sections of the yom as it is believed that the paper money will be used when the deceased passes through the twelve gates of the otherworld.
The body is finally placed into his coffin and is covered with coverlets. “The corpse is laid on top of one of these, called the "coverlet of earth," and is covered with another, called the " coverlet of heaven." The deceased's old clothes will be put into the coffin next to the head and legs to fill the empty spaces. When the cover of the coffin is nailed down with wooden nails the offspring will weep loudly. The coffin itself is now bound with a straw rope around its upper, middle and lower parts”.
The last rite that is practiced is done when the coffin is taken out of the room. Four men will take the coffin and shake it slowly up and down toward the four corners of the room. When it is taken from the room a gourd will be destroyed in front of it, in the attempt to drive away evil spirits.
There are a number of different rites and rituals that are practiced in Korea when someone has died. The ritual of washing the body is the most important, as it is a rite of purification, cleaning the polluted body whereas the act of binding is one that symbolises separation. These rites have been practiced for generations and continue to be practiced, for it is believed that they will aid the spirit of the deceased to pass through the twelve gates of the otherworld and arrive in heaven.
Bibliography:
Lee, Kwang Kyu (1984) The Concept of Ancestors and Ancestor Worship in Korea, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.
Wednesday, February 23, 2011
An Overview on the Kingdom of Choson
Choson was an ancient Korean kingdom that was founded around 1392 CE and collapsed in 1897 (although some scholars say 1910). Throughout the five centuries it lasted, the kingdom of Choson was home to some of the most marvellous people and remarkable history.
The kingdom was founded by Yi Seong-gye who later called himself Taejo of Joseon (an alternative spelling of Choson). The previous dynasty, Goryeo, was collapsing due to two factions – one followed General Yi in supporting the new Ming Dynasty in China, the other preferred to stay loyal to the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. War broke out with General Yi victorious and placed king Gongyang on the throne. In 1392, Yi overthrew him, exiled him and claimed the throne for himself. The Choson kingdom was born.
Yi ordered political discrimination against northerners (despite the fact that he himself was a northerner). The aristocrats of the capital (and of the south) did not consider any northerners as equal to them, and thus no aristocrat resided in the north. “The absence of nobles in the north and the exclusion of northerners from higher office reinforced each other. Indeed, much of the northern territories securely became part of the Korean domain only with the onset of the Choson era, and the people of the north never gained acceptance into the ruling structure of the country. This fact heightens the sense of wonder at the northerners' indispensable contributions-intellectually, culturally, and politically-to the development of a collective national identity in the early twentieth century”.
Choson continued to experience strife in its early years and in the 16th century, Japan sent armies to invade Korea. The Japanese warlord, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, wanted to conquer Ming China and saw Choson as a stepping stone to achieve this. In 1592 and 1597, he sent armies to Korea and within months occupied large amounts of territories.
Choson was experiencing political divisions and the superior weaponry that the enemies used allowed the Japanese to gain this territory. However the tides turned with the use of the Korean navy who cut off the Japanese supplies and Ming China who backed the Koreans. The Japanese were expelled.
However, peace was not to last for long. Choson then experienced trouble with Manchuria. In 1627 and 1637, the Manchus invaded Korea and eventually defeated them. Ming China was coming to an end, with the Manchus ready to dispose of the Chinese rulers, and agreed to pay tribute to the founders of the Qing dynasty.
For the next 200 years, Choson experienced peace and tranquillity. But, yet again, invasions from Japan made sure it wasn’t to last. China and Japan fought for supremacy in what was later known as the Sino-Japanese War (1894 – 1895) which, for the most part, was fought on Korean soil. Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by the Japanese and the treaty Japan held with China after the Qing’s defeat ensured that Choson was independent from her.
In 1987 the Choson kingdom officially changed its name to Korea (this technically ends the Choson dynasty) but Emperor Gojong continued to rule. Japan continued to fight and in 1910, annexed Korea into its own empire.
Throughout the 500 years of rule, Choson experienced 27 rulers and a long period of outside influence. It was the last imperial dynasty of Korea and experienced the longest period of Confucianism. It is this dynasty that has had the most impact on modern Korean society today.
Bibliography:
Kim Haboush, Jahyun (1995) Filial Emotions and Filial Values: Changing Patterns in The Discourse of Filiality in Late Choson Korea, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Harvard-Yenching Institute.
The kingdom was founded by Yi Seong-gye who later called himself Taejo of Joseon (an alternative spelling of Choson). The previous dynasty, Goryeo, was collapsing due to two factions – one followed General Yi in supporting the new Ming Dynasty in China, the other preferred to stay loyal to the Mongolian Yuan dynasty. War broke out with General Yi victorious and placed king Gongyang on the throne. In 1392, Yi overthrew him, exiled him and claimed the throne for himself. The Choson kingdom was born.
Yi ordered political discrimination against northerners (despite the fact that he himself was a northerner). The aristocrats of the capital (and of the south) did not consider any northerners as equal to them, and thus no aristocrat resided in the north. “The absence of nobles in the north and the exclusion of northerners from higher office reinforced each other. Indeed, much of the northern territories securely became part of the Korean domain only with the onset of the Choson era, and the people of the north never gained acceptance into the ruling structure of the country. This fact heightens the sense of wonder at the northerners' indispensable contributions-intellectually, culturally, and politically-to the development of a collective national identity in the early twentieth century”.
Choson continued to experience strife in its early years and in the 16th century, Japan sent armies to invade Korea. The Japanese warlord, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, wanted to conquer Ming China and saw Choson as a stepping stone to achieve this. In 1592 and 1597, he sent armies to Korea and within months occupied large amounts of territories.
Choson was experiencing political divisions and the superior weaponry that the enemies used allowed the Japanese to gain this territory. However the tides turned with the use of the Korean navy who cut off the Japanese supplies and Ming China who backed the Koreans. The Japanese were expelled.
However, peace was not to last for long. Choson then experienced trouble with Manchuria. In 1627 and 1637, the Manchus invaded Korea and eventually defeated them. Ming China was coming to an end, with the Manchus ready to dispose of the Chinese rulers, and agreed to pay tribute to the founders of the Qing dynasty.
For the next 200 years, Choson experienced peace and tranquillity. But, yet again, invasions from Japan made sure it wasn’t to last. China and Japan fought for supremacy in what was later known as the Sino-Japanese War (1894 – 1895) which, for the most part, was fought on Korean soil. Empress Myeongseong was assassinated by the Japanese and the treaty Japan held with China after the Qing’s defeat ensured that Choson was independent from her.
In 1987 the Choson kingdom officially changed its name to Korea (this technically ends the Choson dynasty) but Emperor Gojong continued to rule. Japan continued to fight and in 1910, annexed Korea into its own empire.
Throughout the 500 years of rule, Choson experienced 27 rulers and a long period of outside influence. It was the last imperial dynasty of Korea and experienced the longest period of Confucianism. It is this dynasty that has had the most impact on modern Korean society today.
Bibliography:
Kim Haboush, Jahyun (1995) Filial Emotions and Filial Values: Changing Patterns in The Discourse of Filiality in Late Choson Korea, Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Harvard-Yenching Institute.
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