The History of the Xiajiadain Period in Ancient China

Before the major dynasties of ancient Chinese history, there were several Neolithic cultures that sprang up around the valleys of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers. These ancient civilizations, known as cultures, established agricultural communities in the Bronze Age which later gave way to better known cultures such as the Shang civilization.

The Lower Xiajiadain culture was established in Inner Mongolia and Liaoning and Hebei provinces in the north of China. At the time it emerged (around 2200 BCE) it was contemporary with the Longshan culture. Excavations have separated the Xiajiadain period into three phrases with the known 2000 sites falling into one of the three categories, based on size and the presence of defences.

Some Xiajiadain sites had large walls for protection; the largest site covers more than 10 ha (25 acres). Smaller defended sites and those without walls clustered around a large central place. An example of this can be found at Chijiayingzi. A number of these stone walls included bastions of stone or stamped earth and had plastered walls and floors.

Different locations had slight variations. For example, in Sifendi in Inner Mongolia, houses were constructed as circular buildings with a diameter of not more than 4m (13ft), dominated by a hearth in the middle of the room.

The Xiajiadain culture was based on millet cultivation and many storage pits were likely to have been dug to store millet for the winter period. Archaeologists have unearthed large amounts of cultural implements, such as stone hoes, sickles, spades made from animal shoulder bones, and bones from several types of animals. The animal bones strongly indicate that the Xiajiadain people had raised livestock as well as hunting deer. From grave excavations, it appears pigs were placed with the bodies as ritual offerings.

Graves have been found at many sites belonging to the Xiajiadain culture. At Dadianzi, some 800 burials have been excavated. The elite classes were placed in large graves of up to 8.9m (29ft) where a wooden coffin was placed at the bottom. On top of the coffin finely painted ceramic vessels and limbs of domestic pigs were placed in niches at the side. Archaeologists have also found polished stone battle-axes, lacquer-ware, rare jades, ornaments made from bronze and skeletons of dogs and pigs.

Not only can the Xiajiadain culture tell us what the society was like, it can also tell us what the conditions were like to live in at the time. “Pollen collected from graves of the Lower Xiajiadian period, however, suggests that conditions did not significantly deteriorate during the 5th and 4th millennia B.P. Analysis of pollen collected from Lower Xiajiadian graves showed that in some samples, tree pollen accounted for up to 99% of the total pollen, while in others bush and grass pollen accounted for 95% of the pollen. Among the trees, pine and other polipodia dominated the pollen spectrum. This suggests that the area had a wooded environment with patches of grassland and agricultural fields. On the basis of the types and relative frequencies of plants identified, a wetter environment than the present is suggested”.

The Xiajiadain period was a remarkable period in Chinese history; because of this ancient society, it is believed they were, in part, the ancestors of the Shang civilization.

Bibliography:

Linduff, Katheryn. M., Drennan, Robert D. & Shelach, Gideon (2002-2004) Early Complex Societies in NE China: The Chifeng International Collaborative Archaeological Research Project, Journal of Field Archaeology, Boston University.

Higham, Charles (2005) The Human Past – Complex Societies of East and Southeast Asia, Thames & Hudson, London.

The Role of the Chinese Dynasties

For over two thousand years, various dynasties ruled over China. No other government system in the world lasted as long as the imperial Chinese rule. Dynasties, or ruling houses, were said to be given the Mandate of Heaven, the right to rule by the gods. When the emperors fell out of favour (shown by natural disasters, rebellions etc), then the gods would send a new ruling house to govern China, ensuring the empire would continue.

Each dynasty became a role for the Chinese people – the achievements and accomplishments that occurred during its rule were something for the people and the emperor to learn from. The traditional picture for most people is a united country unchanging through the centuries. Unfortunately, this reality is flawed – China’s history is fractured by reality.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2200 – 1600 BCE)

Long thought a mythical dynasty there is increasing archaeological evidence to confirm that the Xia dynasty did actually exist. The founder of the dynasty, Yu, is still shrouded in myth. Legends state that he was given the authority to rule by Shun “who also received rule non-hereditarily and without violence; but the Xia were overthrown by the Shang and all subsequent dynasties were founded by overthrow and continued hereditarily”. The last ruler of the Xia dynasty was Jie who was overthrown by Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty. This dynasty was said to be a time of peace and prosperity.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – 1122 BCE)

The Shang dynasty was founded by Tang who asserted his claim to rule by stating that the Xia had lost the favour of the Lord on High, thereby losing the Mandate of Heaven. Around 30 emperors ruled and in this time bronze manufacturing became a hallmark of their dynasty (although it should be stated that bronze work was probably developed before their rule). The worship of ‘The Lord on High’ was introduced; he presided over all the other gods and humans on earth. Human sacrifices were no longer performed and the foundations of Chinese writing were established.

The Zhou Dynasty (Western Zhou 1122 – 770 BCE, Eastern Zhou 770 – 255 BCE)

The Zhou Dynasty can be divided into two periods, the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou. The Zhou had rose from the west and had violently overthrown the Shang dynasty, asserting their claim by “citing the precedent of a Xia Dynasty overthrown by the Shang and arguing that the mandate of Heaven is not constant”. They adopted the administration methods of the Shang and their way of life including their writing techniques. However, instead of ruling over a united country, they ruled over several less powerful kingdoms and developed something similar to that of a feudal system. It was this period that saw the introduction to the god Tian (heaven).

The Eastern Zhou period begins with the transfer of the capital eastwards to Luoyang (in Henan Province) were new cities were established. This was due to increasing pressure from nomadic raiders and internal pressures. This period can be further divided into two periods – the Spring and Autumn Annals (770 – 480 BCE) and the Warring States Period (480 – 221 BCE). Despite the constant warfare, this dynasty saw the development of agriculture, irrigations and ironworking.

The Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BCE)

The first imperial dynasty, Qin Shi Huangdi united China under his firm and tyrannical rule by establishing a series of victories over the Warring States. On his death, he was buried in his mausoleum and guarded by the famous terracotta warriors. His dynasty ended 14 years after its foundation, ending with his weak son. One Confucian writer stated the dynasty fell “because it failed to display humanity and righteousness, or to realise that there is a difference between the power to attack and the power to consolidate”. The truth is that the dynasty fell because it tried to do too much too soon and Shi Huangdi’s son was not as strong as his father. Although Shi Huangdi has been vilified by later dynasties, he has always remained the epitome for the power needed to rule over China.

The Han Dynasty (The Western Han 206 BCE – 9 CE, Wang Men Period 9 – 23 CE, The Eastern Han 25 – 220 CE)

The Han dynasty can be broken into three parts; the Western Han, the Wang Mang period and the Eastern Han period. Overall, this was the longest imperial dynasty. It was founded by a peasant man named Liu Bang and under the rule of Wudi the Silk Road was opened up which allowed for international trading from Europe across Asia. The period under the rule of Wang Meng has long been considered a time of usurpation by Chinese history. However, the facts are that he was a practical and well-meaning ruler but his policies led to problems with the establishment of the elite from the Han.

The Eastern Han period begins with the crowning of the rebel leader Liu Xiu who was renamed Guang Wudi. He moved the capital from Chang’an to Luoyang and established Confucianism as the foundation of his society. New crops were introduced and paper was first created in this period but the dynasty fell due to internal fighting.

Era of Disunity (220 – 581 CE) (This period includes the Three kingdoms Period, the Jin Dynasty, the Sixteen Kingdoms period and the Southern & Northern Dynasties).

Three Kingdoms Period (220 – 280 CE)

This era was part of the era known as the Era of Disunity. It saw the rise and fall of several kingdoms and was a time of great hardships, war, division, and economic distress. It also saw the mass movements of refugees from the north to the south to escape the constant wars and power struggles between the kingdoms. The three kingdoms were Wei (220 – 64 CE), Wu (222 – 80 CE) and Shu Han (221 – 63 CE).

The Jin Dynasty (265 – 420 CE)

The Jin dynasty was founded by Emperor Wu who offered a brief respite from the disunity experienced; however, it was not to last for the country soon delved back into chaos. The Jin dynasty can be divided into two periods; the Western Jin (265 – 316 CE) and the Eastern Jin (316 – 420 CE).

The Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304 – 439 CE)

This period saw the rise and fall of 16 kingdoms or states. It is known as one of the most devastating periods of time in Chinese history due to the constant warfare and hardships. Despite the foundation of the Northern Wei kingdom, it is not classed as part of the 16 kingdoms.

The Southern & Northern Dynasty (420 – 589)

The last in a series of divided rule, the Southern and Northern dynasty continued to be a period of political and civil chaos. Despite the constant disunity, this era also saw the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and the flourishing of arts. This period marks of the end of the Era of Disunity.

The Sui Dynasty (581 – 618 CE)

The Sui dynasty, founded by Duke Yang Jian (renamed Wendi) led to the reunification of China but only lasted for 40 years. During its reign, the emperors exhausted the treasury and experienced the disastrous attempts to annex Korea. It fell due to revolts and internal pressures.

The Tang Dynasty (618 – 908 CE)

Known as the Golden Age of Chinese history, the Tang period embarked on a series of expansion campaigns that stretched from Central Asia to Korea. Neighbouring countries acknowledged the strength and power of China and used their government as a model for their own. This was the period that saw its only female ruler, Wu Zetian. Porcelain became a speciality and was in demand all over Asia. However, the golden age did not last; during the mid 8th century there was a long rebellion that weakened the dynasty and growing internal pressures led to its downfall.

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Dynasty (907 – 60 CE)

China fell into chaos once again. In this period of turmoil and pandemonium, there were a series of kingdoms and dynasties that quickly followed after each other. Five dynasties ruled north China and the south were carved up into ten kingdoms. Despite this, much of the social and administrative organization remained the same.

The Song Dynasty (The Northern Song 960 – 1126 CE, The Southern Song 1127 – 1279 CE)

The country was reunited once more under a dynasty that would also be divided in two. This period saw a reduction in the area under imperial rule but also saw the advancement in certain areas. These included agriculture, tea cultivation, textiles, urbanizations, and the spread of printing. The wealth achieved in this time was probably unequal to any other country on earth at the time. However, it could not withstand the armies of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279 – 1368 CE)

The Mongolian dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan, the grandson of the great Genghis Khan. He managed to legitimise his rule by balancing out the foreign influences with Chinese terms. Arts flourished during the Mongolian rule but there was constant warfare, disease and natural disasters that led to its decline.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE)

The last Chinese dynasty, the Ming era was marked by prosperity, especially in its early era. There was a huge population growth, literacy increased and the establishment of neo-Confucianism provided the foundation of a stable society. Later on, the fine arts would reach new heights. However, the extreme addictions of some Ming emperors cost China, both in administration and monetary wise. There were constant power struggles in the later Ming period and a series of floods, droughts, crop failures, natural disasters and invasions from the north led to the fall of the ruling house.

The Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912 CE)

The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchus, a nomadic people from the north. Theirs would be the last imperial dynasty but it was under them that some of the greatest Chinese works of art were produced. The Manchus adopted many aspects of Chinese government and formed a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural realm before the end of their reign. However, the Chinese saw their rulers as barbarians and there were serious social unhappiness. The dynasty ended with a series of mass humiliations caused by the Japanese and Europeans and the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China, by the empress dowager Cixi. This marks the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.

Bronze Musical Instruments from the Shang and Zhou Periods

Excavations in south China have revealed a large amount of bronze musical instruments dating from the Shang (c. 1600 – 1046 BCE) and the Zhou (c. 1045 – 256 BCE) Dynasties. Each of these music instruments display pronounced regional characteristics and are important artefacts as they can give us great insight into Chinese history at this time.

One type of instruments found were large bells named ‘nao’. These large bells were different from the southern bells as they were set on a stand and hit upright, instead of being grasped in the hands and struck downwards. The tops of the bells are fashioned quite wide and narrow at the bottom with a curved rim and a cylindrical shank (yong). The player can produce two different types of tones with these bells by striking at the ‘gu’ and the ‘sui’ sections. These are called the sui-tone and the gu-tone. The nao are sometimes called yong, zheng, duo, zhong or early period yongzhong.

There have been 73 bronze nao found in south China which are grouped into 6 main categories and 15 sub-categories. The first main type is made up of 21 examples of bells which feature animal-mask motifs and have been found principally in Hunan Province. The second group consists of 12 examples where the principal animal-mask motif is embellished with a cloud pattern design. The third category is made up of 3 examples where the cloud motif has almost completely replaced the animal-0mask motif. Only the eyes remain visible. The fourth group consists of 8 examples where the body of the nao is embellished with the cloud design and the animal mask has completely disappeared and 36 nipple-bosses appear on the zheng section of the bell.

The fifth category consists of 28 examples where the zhuanjian central panel is in the process of forming. Finally, the sixth category is made up of only 1 unusual nao which was unearthed in 1988. The primary design is a dissolved animal-mask. The two C-shaped panels which shape the animal-mask are framed with altering numbers of tooth-shaped protuberances. The eyes of the pattern are composed of two small turtles. The gu sections are decorated with 4 dragon images.

The bo was one of the most important musical instruments in China which were first seen in the late Shang period and prevalent during the Zhou period. The characteristics of the bo are a nui loop, a short mei and a narrow mouth and a straight rim. The body of the bo is thin, elongated and elliptical or almond-shaped in cross-section.

There are, however, only 17 officially published bo that have been found dating to these periods. These have been separated into 4 different categories; the first is made up of 9 examples of Bird-bo, where a bird design is embellished onto the lateral flanges and the animal-masks decorating the zheng sections. The Bird-bo is the earliest example, being dated to the late Shang period. The second category consists of the Tiger-bo, of which there are 6 examples. On these, the flanges are decorated with 4 flat-bodied tiger motifs with an imposing animal-mask on the zheng section and flattened circular nipple-bosses as decorative panels.

The third category is made up of 1 example where a cloud design is most dominant. Excavated from Zixing, Hunan Province, the zheng section of this instrument has cloud-pattern decoration as its principal motif, and dates from around the early Western Zhou Period (c. 1046 – 771 BCE). The fourth category consists of 1 example excavated at Qishan, Shaanxi Province. Dragon motifs decorate the niu suspension loops at the top and the lateral and central flanges are decorated with twisted dragons. Sixteen rhomboid mei adorn the bell above and below the zheng segments. The primary design is an animal-mask made up of dragon designs. On the gu section of the Ke-bo there is an inscription of 79 characters long which dates to the reign of King Yi of Zhou.

The bronze musical instruments were not merely instruments to create beautiful sounds; they were items that could express one’s religious beliefs and artistic talents. Studying these instruments has allowed scholars to gain new insight into early Chinese history. For example, it is clear that Shang and Zhou period bo from the south have been influenced by Shang and Zhou culture. The bronze bo originated in the area of the Xiang River basin and neighbouring regions, the homeland of the Yue people. In the north bo did not appear until the late Western Zhou period but they had a strong influence on the popularity of later bo.

Bibliography:

高 至 喜 (1992) Shang and Zhou Period Bronze Musical Instruments from South China, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African studies, Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies.