The Cult of Mithras in Roman Britain

The religion of Mithras was spread all throughout the Roman Empire, and he became popular not only with slaves, but with the Roman soldiers. It is my intention to look at the cult of Mithras in Roman Britain using the information left by the archaeological record.

First, let us define who Mithras was. Mithras was the Persian deity of the sun, truth and light, although it must be stressed that it is difficult to establish when the ancient Persians connected Mithras with the sun, since ancient Iran had a different solar deity (Edwards, p.2). Once Persia was under Rome’s authority, the religion of Mithras rapidly spread across the Roman Empire.

The military background to Mithraism in Britain is well known to academics and its reputation among the military seems to indicate the cult was most active amongst the veterans stationed near temples and mithraea, small basilical buildings resembling caves where ceremonies were performed.

Due to the deliberate water-logging of the mithraea at Carrawburgh near Hadrian’s Wall in the late Roman period, this mithraea is very well-preserved and can offer us great insight into the significance of the cult of Mithras. The temple itself was built in the early 3^rd century CE, and indicates that the fire that destroyed it could have been deliberate (King, p.354). We have evidence that animal sacrifice was practiced in early to mid 3^rd century CE, as the floor of the narthex was covered in the bones of sheep, goat, pig and ox. Bones of chickens were found amongst a large amount of heather. This has been “interpreted as ritual offerings, either as general sacrifices to Mithras or as part of an initiation ceremony and subsequent ritual meal” (King, p.355). This evidence indicates that these sacrifices were carried out with deliberation, and were clearly significant to the participants involved. It should be noted, however, that due to the complex and secret theology of Mithraism, offerings to the deity are likely to have been undertaken only within the mithraea itself (Stocker, p.360).

Among the different minor animals that have been portrayed on known Mithraic representations, the bull, dog, scorpion and the serpent have all played an important role in the Mithraic myth. However, until recently, no known text recorded the role these animals played, so that “interpretation of the artistic representations and the various group scenes on the art-monuments remains an open field for scholarship” (Oikonomides, p.88).

The significance for Mithraism in Britain is highly important, not only the religion’s own internal history, but also for the religious identity and history of Rome. Instead of the stereotyping view that Rome forced its religious identity onto its conquered people, the study of Mithraism allows us to see clearly that Rome’s stand on religion was more fluid than fixed. The archaeological remains relating to the cult of Mithras indicates that the religion shared a universal identity across not only land and people, but also across time.

Bibliography:

Edwards, M. J. (1990) Herodotus and Mithras: Histories I. 131, The American Journal of Philology, The Johns Hopkins University Press.

King, Anthony (2005) Animal Remains from Temples in Roman Britain, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Oikonomides, Al. N. (1977) A New Mithraic Tauroctony in the J. Paul Getty Museum, The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal, J. Paul Getty Trust.

Stocker, David (1998) A Hitherto Unidentified Image of the Mithraic God Arimanius at Lincoln? Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

The Archaeology and Significance of the Goddess Sulis-Minerva

The archaeology of the Roman baths at Bath in Somerset provides us with much information about the cult of the goddess Sulis-Minerva. From this, we can understand more about the religious diversity within the Roman Empire at the time of its occupation in Britain. It is my aim to discuss the significance of the archaeological remains surrounding the goddess-Minerva.

First, let us define who we mean. Sulis-Minerva is the hybrid of the Roman goddess of healing, Minerva, and the native Celtic goddess Sul. The word ‘sul’ is usually translated as “gap”, “opening” or “orifice” which is the “interface between this world and the otherworld, from whence the extraordinary hot waters emerge” (Bowman, p.25).

The Roman baths at Bath is one of the most well-known religious sites in Britain. With most religious sites, animal sacrifice is most common with dedications to deities. However, excavations at Bath have yielded little faunal evidence, so it could be argued that animal sacrifice was not practised or that the animal remains were deposited outside the temple and baths areas (King, p.361). Through the archaeological information, it is most probable that the first theory is the most accurate one, since the site was dedicated to healing (King, p.361), so it is unlikely that animals, that were sometimes diseased, would be introduced where they could possible infect humans.

Different offerings were dedicated to the goddess. Coins were thrown into the sacred spring, attesting to the sanctity of the waters. Over 12,000 Roman coins have been found, which is one of the largest votive offerings found in Britain (The Official Roman Baths), dating from the first century CE right up to the fourth century CE. It is a matter of debate between archaeologists whether these coins were offered as a single votive offering or whether the devotee offered several coins at once. “However, the importance of these coins may not be confined to our understanding of the temple complex” (Gerrard, p.376)

Curse tablets have also been found. These were soft lead tablets inscribed with a curse, then rolled up and offered up to the goddess of the sacred spring (Richmond & Toynbee, p.97). The devotee would ask for intervention from the goddess. One curse states 'To Minerva the goddess of Sulis I have given the thief who has stolen my hooded cloak, whether slave or free, whether man or woman. He is not to buy back this gift unless with his own blood' (Gerrard, p. 288).

From the available evidence, the significance of the goddess Sulis-Minerva has been of importance since the time the Romans arrived onto the scene. The fact that the Roman goddess Minerva was entwined with the native goddess Sul can be seen of great importance, since religious encounters were more fluid than fixed. Even today, the archaeological evidence that is continually uncovered yields great significance in understanding the power and importance of the cult of Sulis-Minerva.

Bibliography:

Bowman, Marion (1998) Belief, Legend and Perceptions of the Sacred in Contemporary Bath, Folklore, Taylor & Francis.

Gerrard, James (2005) A Possible Late Roman Silver ‘Hoard’ From Bath, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

King, Antony (2005) Animals Remains from Temples in Roman Britain, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

The Official Roman Baths, Bath & North East Somerset Council, http://www.romanbaths.co.uk/

Celtic Deities in Archaeology

The archaeological remains of deities throughout the world have been many, and classical deities from Greece and Rome have always captured the minds and imaginations of archaeologists, historians, writers, poets, actors etc. However, the deities of Celtic Britain have often been overlooked since there is less information regarding them. It is my aim to look, discuss and evaluate the archaeological remains from temples, shrines and other artefacts, of native Celtic deities in order to understand more about how, when and why they were worshipped.

Once the Romans invaded and conquered Britannia, it can be somewhat difficult to find evidence of the native Celtic deities before the Roman occupation within the archaeological record. The Celtic British had an oral traditional, in which stories, legends and myths were told instead of written down. In fact, because of this, there is little evidence to find. We only become aware of these deities due to the Roman soldiers making dedications and having inscriptions copied onto them. Because of this, some deities were intertwined or associated with gods and goddesses from all around the Roman Empire.

The first Celtic deity that I wish to look at are the Genii Cucullati, otherwise known as the Hooded Spirits, since they are usually depicted as three figures (sometimes unclear to whether these figures are male or female) wearing hooded cloaks. Throughout Britain, stone reliefs have depicted these figures who are believed to be lesser deities of fertility and the afterlife.

Excavations in 1989 at the town of Sandy in Bedfordshire in the UK, revealed a large stone relief depicting, what could be, the Genii Cucullati “even though they are dressed in everyday clothes” (Appleton & Dawson, p.306). We can identify that these figures are of divine origin, since Roman art often portrays female figures with billowing veils (Appleton & Dawson, p. 305). Although this relief can be seen as Roman in origin, we can clearly see native characteristics through the large oval face and the large rounded eyes.

The next deity that is of significance is the god Cocidius. Cocidius was the Celtic god who was associated by the Romans with Mars, the Roman god of war, and Sylvanus, the god of hunting, groves and wild fields. It could be argued that Cocidius was only worshipped in northern Britain since archaeological evidence has only yielded information regarding this deity in that region.

In 1980, excavations by the Field Research Group of the Society of Antiquities of Newcastle Upon Tyne uncovered a shrine at Yardhope, which appears to have been dedicated to this deity.”Carved on the face of the rock on the north side of the entrance, and framed in a mushroom-shaped niche, is the full frontal figure of the god, 32 inches high” (Charlton & Mitcheson, p.143). From the nude figure, we can identify that this was a Celtic god, since it was Celtic deities that were portrayed as nude, not Roman. One argument for Roman association with this site is that the Celts “neither needed nor desired houses for their gods or images of them...” (Charlton & Mitcheson, p. 147). In pre-Roman times, the Celts worshipped at natural features – groves, pools, springs etc, although there is evidence in the archaeological record that there may have been structures made of wood placed over sacred areas in which ceremonies were held (Charlton & Mitcheson, p.147). So from this, we can see that a native Celtic god was worshipped by Roman soldiers, probably lower racking soldiers. Unfortunately, archaeologists have not been able to positively date this site as the site was lacking in artefacts (Charlton & Mitcheson, p.145).

There are examples were only a single inscription, or other piece of archaeological evidence, is all that has been found to identify a deity. The goddess Verbeia is one example. At the site of Ilkey in Yorkshire in 1921, excavations yielded an inscription on an altar to the goddess of the Wharfe. The inscription reads as,

VERBEIAE SACRVM CLODIVS FRONTO PRAEF COH II LINGON

Which translates as “To holy Verbia, Clodius Fronto, prefect of the Second Cohort of Lingones (dedicated this)” (Taylor & Collingwood, p.202). The coin and pottery evidence dates this inscription to the reign of Trajan and Pius. Again, we can see archaeological evidence for the deity only because of Roman interaction.

It has been suggested in the past that the Roman soldiers worshipped and dedicated altars, reliefs and other items to these native, non-Roman deities, since the Britons formed part of the Roman army within Britain. However, we have evidence that the few British soldiers, who joined the Roman army, were stationed in other parts of the Empire. Indeed, only two Legions were stationed in Britain (Legions were composed of Roman citizens, not people from the Roman Empire). So what we can clearly see is that these non-Roman, but Roman, soldiers were able to preserve the identities of native deities for future generations instead of being completely erased by time.

Bibliography

Appleton, Graham & Dawson, Michael (1995) A Large Stone Relief from the Roman Small Town of Sandy, Bedfordshire, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Charlton, D. Beryl & Mitcheson, Margaret M. (1983) Yardhope. A Shrine to Cocidius, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Taylor, M.V & Collingwood, R.G (1921) Roman Britain in 1921 and 1922, The Journal of Roman Studies, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Examples of Religious Diversity in Roman Britain.

The Romans conquered many civilizations during the Republic and once Rome became an Empire. However, most non-academics do not realize that although Rome imposed much of their culture on these people, religious tolerance was one of Rome’s strengths. It is my intention to explore religious tolerance in Roman Britain through the use of the archaeological record.

The first example I wish to present, is the goddess Senuna. Near Baldock in Hertfordshire in 2002, a metal detector found a hoard of artefacts. This hoard is now on display in the British Museum. One inscription is dedicated to the goddess, which states

D SENVNE FLAVIA CVNORIS V S L M

This translates as “To the goddess Senuna, Flavia Cunoris paid her vow, willingly, deservedly” (Burnham, Hunter, Fitzpatrick, Worrel, Hassell & Tomlin, p. 489). Until this discovery, this goddess was unknown and has been able to throw new light on the religious diversity between the Romans and the native population. The votive plaques of the goddess gives her similar characteristics similar to that of Sulis Minerva, the Romano-British goddess, worshipped at Bath in Somerset. Since there are springs near to where the hoard was found, it could be argued that the goddess was associated with “the south-British river whose name is transmitted by the Ravenna Cosmography as Senua” (, Hunter, Fitzpatrick, Worrel, Hassell & Tomlin, p. 489). The offerings, which included coins, jewellery, votive plaques, a figurine and cloak clasps, are of importance. The jewellery was imported from different parts of the Roman Empire, and the name of Flavia Cunoris suggests that the dedication was from a Roman woman, rather than a local woman. So from this, we can clearly see that a native goddess was worshipped, respected and given offerings to not only from the local population, but also from the Romans.

The next example to explore the theme of religious diversity in Roman Britain is the archaeological finds of Abandinus in Godmanchester in Cambridgeshire. Excavations uncovered a bath-house and three temples or shrines. As with many Celtic gods, we only have one inscribed that records his existence in Celtic mythology. It reads,

DEO ABANDINO VATIAVCVS D S D

Which translates as “To the god Abandinus, Vatiacus gave this from his own resources” (Wilson, Wright & Hassall, p.325). This inscription was found on the bottom of a single bronze feather found in the disused aqueduct of the bath-house. Because of the evidence found, it can be argued that Abandinus was a local deity and was worshipped by the Romans. So here is another example of religious diversity between the native Celts and the Roman population.

One more example that I wish to put forward is the cult of Mithras. Mithras was the Persian god of truth and light, and evidence of his worship can be found throughout the Roman Empire, as this deity was very popular with the Roman soldiers. A stone relief depicting his divine birth was found in northern England, and temples dedicated to the god have been along Hadrian’s Wall in northern England. Excavations undertaken at a temple of Mithras in London uncovered a wealth of icons and treasures that were buried before the building was converted into a building for a different form of worship in the 4th century CE (Perring, p.123).

From the evidence shown in the archaeological record show that religious diversity in Roman Britain was more fluid than fixed. The cultural differences between the native and the Roman population were not quite as negative as what some people still believe today. In fact, it is because of the belief and respect the Roman soldiers paid to these Celtic deities that we today can identify and learn more about them.

Bibliography

Burnham, Barry., Hunter, F., Fitzpatrick, A.P., Worrel, S., Hassall, M.W.C. & Tomlin, R.S.O (2004) Roman Britain in 2004, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Perring, Dominic (2003) ‘Gnosticism’ in Forth-century Britain: The Frampton Mosaics Reconsidered, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Wilson, D.R., Wright, R.P. & Hassall, M.W.C. (1973) Roman Britain in 1972, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.