The Cult of Mithras in Roman Britain

The religion of Mithras was spread all throughout the Roman Empire, and he became popular not only with slaves, but with the Roman soldiers. It is my intention to look at the cult of Mithras in Roman Britain using the information left by the archaeological record.

First, let us define who Mithras was. Mithras was the Persian deity of the sun, truth and light, although it must be stressed that it is difficult to establish when the ancient Persians connected Mithras with the sun, since ancient Iran had a different solar deity (Edwards, p.2). Once Persia was under Rome’s authority, the religion of Mithras rapidly spread across the Roman Empire.

The military background to Mithraism in Britain is well known to academics and its reputation among the military seems to indicate the cult was most active amongst the veterans stationed near temples and mithraea, small basilical buildings resembling caves where ceremonies were performed.

Due to the deliberate water-logging of the mithraea at Carrawburgh near Hadrian’s Wall in the late Roman period, this mithraea is very well-preserved and can offer us great insight into the significance of the cult of Mithras. The temple itself was built in the early 3^rd century CE, and indicates that the fire that destroyed it could have been deliberate (King, p.354). We have evidence that animal sacrifice was practiced in early to mid 3^rd century CE, as the floor of the narthex was covered in the bones of sheep, goat, pig and ox. Bones of chickens were found amongst a large amount of heather. This has been “interpreted as ritual offerings, either as general sacrifices to Mithras or as part of an initiation ceremony and subsequent ritual meal” (King, p.355). This evidence indicates that these sacrifices were carried out with deliberation, and were clearly significant to the participants involved. It should be noted, however, that due to the complex and secret theology of Mithraism, offerings to the deity are likely to have been undertaken only within the mithraea itself (Stocker, p.360).

Among the different minor animals that have been portrayed on known Mithraic representations, the bull, dog, scorpion and the serpent have all played an important role in the Mithraic myth. However, until recently, no known text recorded the role these animals played, so that “interpretation of the artistic representations and the various group scenes on the art-monuments remains an open field for scholarship” (Oikonomides, p.88).

The significance for Mithraism in Britain is highly important, not only the religion’s own internal history, but also for the religious identity and history of Rome. Instead of the stereotyping view that Rome forced its religious identity onto its conquered people, the study of Mithraism allows us to see clearly that Rome’s stand on religion was more fluid than fixed. The archaeological remains relating to the cult of Mithras indicates that the religion shared a universal identity across not only land and people, but also across time.

Bibliography:

Edwards, M. J. (1990) Herodotus and Mithras: Histories I. 131, The American Journal of Philology, The Johns Hopkins University Press.

King, Anthony (2005) Animal Remains from Temples in Roman Britain, Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

Oikonomides, Al. N. (1977) A New Mithraic Tauroctony in the J. Paul Getty Museum, The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal, J. Paul Getty Trust.

Stocker, David (1998) A Hitherto Unidentified Image of the Mithraic God Arimanius at Lincoln? Britannia, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies.

The Syro-Hittite Ritual Burial of Monuments

The Syro-Hittite cultures flourished in ancient Mesopotamia from the Late Bronze Age to the time when they were finally annexed by Assyria sometime in the eighth century BCE. One of the many features they are known for are their remarkable pieces of art and architecture, especially giant lions where they were placed in front of palaces and temples.

Many of these beautiful monuments were later burnt to the ground by invaders who conquered these areas. These gate-lions and other statues were also broken down into smaller pieces and then taken away as spoils of war, to be reused for their own monuments or simply left buried underneath the rubble for an extraordinary long period.

However, at least five locations - Alalakh, Hazor, Zincirli, and Arslantepe near Malatya – archaeologists have discovered that these monuments were carefully buried in the ground, suggesting a Syro-Hittite burial ritual.

In Alalakh, archaeologists discovered several temples that were destroyed sometime in the 13^th century BCE when they were destroyed by the Sea Peoples. They also found evidence of a short occupation in the 12^th century BCE. A large statue of the king, Idri-mi, would have been firmly fixed onto a throne in an annex.

However, Woolley remarks, “In a room in the annexe of the temple proper ... we found a hole which had been dug into the floor and filled with earth and large stones (the largest weighing nearly a ton and a half) and smoothed over; under the stones there was a broken statue; the head, which had been knocked off, was set beside the body together with two smaller fragments, one of the beard, the other of a foot; only part of one foot was missing. The statue belonged to the throne found on the temple floor.... We can be sure that the statue was on its throne when the temple was destroyed because the breaking of the feet must have resulted from its being knocked violently off its base into which the feet were socketted.... After the sack of the temple someone must have crept back and piously collected all that he could find of the figure and hidden it in a hastily-dug hole ...”. The statue of the king had clearly been collected and buried carefully under the floor.

As with Alalakh, archaeologists found other temple monuments which, after invasion by a hostile enemy, had been buried in the ground. In Zincirli, five gigantic lions were dragged from their original places and buried in a specially made pit. When taking into account how heavy and the difficulties in moving them, it is clear that this was a case of ritual burying.

For a period of at least half a millennium, the Syro-Hittite people clearly practiced a ritual of burying monuments. However, there are questions that arise when looking at the information yielded from these temples. Why were only a small number of temple monuments buried in a ritualistic manner? Why did other temples not do this as well? Although the number of cases is relatively small, the sheer extent to which these ancient people went to bury these monuments clearly shows that it is not accidental.

The burial of monuments seems to indicate their importance in the cults and the ancient beliefs of the Syro-Hittite world. “The ritual burial seems to support the view that the gate-lions were not merely decorated orthostats meant to strengthen the superstructure of the gates in which they were incorporated, but, as guardians of the gate were considered to possess godly, demonical, or punitive powers”.

Bibliography:

Ussishkin, David (1970) The Syro-Hittite Ritual Burial of Monuments, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, the University of Chicago Press.

The Various Jewish Sects in the First Century BCE

During the time of the man known as Jesus, in the region known today as Israel and Palestine, there were several Jewish sects. Until around 165 BCE, this area known as Judea was under Seleucid rule until a new Semitic dynasty called the Hasmoreans were able to establish semi-independence. However, in 63 BCE, the Roman general Pompey conquered the area and was forced to become vassals to the Romans.

The Hasmoneans:

The Hasmoneans did not have the religious legitimacy in the eyes of many strict Jews as they were not the descendants of King David. The Hasmoneans rebuilt Soloman’s temple and temple worship began to flourish once more.

The most famous Hasmonean king was Herold, the man known for the massacre of many innocent children when he heard about the birth of the Jewish Messiah. However, many do not realise that he was given the name Herold the Great, due to his magnificent architectural works and expansion of his borders.

The Sadducees:

The Sadducees were the official sect who controlled the Temple and many other key religious posts on the Sanhedrin (the official Jewish organization that decided all religious issues). They held close ties to which ever secular power was established, at this time it was the Romans. The Sadducees believed in the Old Testament but “not in what they thought were extraneous beliefs, which in their case included, for example, resurrection from the dead and an afterlife”.

The Pharisees:

The Pharisees were just as religious as the Sadducees and held to the notion of a parallel, oral tradition of rabbinical teachings. These teachings evolved over time with the Scriptures called the Torah.

The Pharisees was open to all people, unlike that of the Saducees. The New Testament claims that the Pharisees, at the time of Jesus, had become too proud in their extensive religious knowledge.

The Essenes:

The Essenes were a smaller sect who lived separate from the other Jewish sects. They lived in special communities and rejected the Hasmonean monarchy. Ascetics, they are famous today due to the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the 20^th century. These are fragile scrolls which have managed to preserve their teachings.

The Zealots:

The Zealots were another smaller sect who had their own interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures. They were highly political and organised several rebellions which resulted in a major revolt from 66 – 70 CE and the mass Jewish suicide at the fortress of Masada in 73 CE.

The History and Significance of the Amesa Spentas

The Amesa Spentas, otherwise known as the Amesha Spentas, are not deities the general public recognises on first glance. Unfortunately in today’s contemporary society, only the major gods, such as Zeus, Isis, Osiris and Odin for example, are recognised. However, the more obscure deities, such as the Amesa Spentas can provide us with information into the lives and religious identity of a culture.

The Amesa Spentas are the holy immortals of Zoroastrianism. They were later grouped into a special class of archangels, named “Vohu Mano, the "Good Mind" (of God); Asa Vahista, the "Best [World] Order," Hsathra Vairya, the "Desired Kingdom" (of God); Spenta Armaiti, "Holy Piety," Haurvatat and Ameretat, "Physical Perfection" and "Immortality"; to which might also be added Sraosa, "Obedience." The latter is often supposed to have been added in order to complete the number "seven," since "obedience" can hardly be termed a divine attribute” (Albright, p.234).

Historians have translated a prayer which is addressed to the Amesa Spentas, which states “At whose sacrifice Ahura Mazda knows the best for me according to righteousness. Those who were and are, those I shall worship by their names, and shall approach with praise” (Boyce, p.18-19).

This prayer has been of importance to the study of Zoroastrianism. The worship and invocation by the prophet of divinities other than Ahura Mazda, however subtle the doctrine of their relationship with the supreme god, is not consonant with a theory of his strict monotheism. It has also been suggested by scholars that the Amesa Spentas had a special closeness with the worship of Ahura Mazda and the protective powers of Mithras (Boyce, p.33).

In standard Zoroastrian doctrine, the first six Amesa Spentas , have respective connections with the series of creations - Vohu Mano with cattle; Asa Vahista with fire; Hsathra Vairya with metals; Spenta Armaiti with earth; Haurvatat with water; and Ameretat with plants. Concerning the seventh, Sraosa, one scholars states that “Ahura Mazda himself had his own special creation, that of man, who comes at the beginning of the series” (Barr, p.207).

When looking at the significance of the Amesa Spentas in regards of history and religion, or the history of religion, it has been argued amongst scholars that they were part of the model Hebrew angelology developed, although the names and functions of the Amesa Spentas, and the nature of the entities as revealed by them, are very far removed from what counted as angels in most stages of Judaism (Barr, p.222).

Regardless of the fact that the Amesa Spentas are not well known in today’s society, they provide us with great insight into the culture and society of ancient Mesopotamia.

Bibliography:

Albright, W. F. (1927) Note on the Goddess Anat, the American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, the University of Chicago Press.

Barr, James (1985) The Question of Religious Influence: The Case of Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Christianity, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Oxford University Press.

Boyce, Mary (1969) On Mithra’s Part in Zoroastrianism, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London, Cambridge University Press on behalf of School of Oriental and African Studies.

Cotterell, Arthur & Storm, Rachel (1999) The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Mythology, Hermes House, Anness Publishing House.

Prehistoric Settlement Patterns around Tepe Yahya

Since its discovery in 1967, the ancient site of Tepe Yahya in modern day Iran has been of great interest to archaeologists. Symmetrical in shape, rising to a height of 30 meters, it measures 180 meters at the base and 40 meters at the top. It lies around 225 kilometres from the modern city of Kerman. The mound is located in a mountainous valley where it is the dominating feature of the surrounding landscape.

Excavations have found that Tepe Yahya was inhabited during a timeframe of five millennia, roughly from the middle of the fifth millennium BCE to the second half of the first millennium CE. Although there is a noticeable gap between occupations timeframes in the second millennium, Tepe Yahya seems to have been occupied continuously. The following periods have been distinguished as:

Period IV: 4500 – 3800 BCE

Period V A-C: 3800 – 3400 BCE

Period IV C: 3400-3000 BCE

Period IV B: 3000-2500 BCE

Gap

Period IV A: 2100-1800 BCE

Gap

Period III: 750-500 BCE

Period II A & B: 500 BCE -200 CE

A Period I A & B: 200 -700 CE

When looking at the archaeological record, nearly nine tenths of the mound was attributed to pre-Achaemenean times, more precisely, from the middle of the fifth century to the early second millennium BCE. After a few gaps, the site was re-inhabited but produced less than one tenth of the present volume of the mound. However, when looking at the surface data available, it indicates a third, fourth and fifth millennium site.

The shards found on the surface were heavier and larger than the ones buried in the soil, almost doubling the average weight of the latter. “In the open fields around Tepe Yahya, most of which show signs of past or recent cultivation, sherds are found in considerable numbers down to a depth of about 50 cm., which probably represents the level reached by animal-drawn plows”.

Archaeologists, after performing careful surface survey of the surrounding area, believe that the “successive inhabitants of Tepe Yahya had an increasingly smaller surface area at their disposal. Given the steepness of the mound, it is unlikely that its slopes provided additional building space or Lebensraum … As the superimposed settlements at Tepe Yahya diminished in size, condemned by the inexorable laws of mound construction, did their populations decline correspondingly, or did they spill over onto the surrounding plain?”

Bibliography:

Vidali, Eda & Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C. (1976) Prehistoric Settlement Patterns around Tepe Yahya: A Quantitative Analysis, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, the University of Chicago Press.