Buddhist Sculptures from the Song Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, Sichuan

Within the last few decades, Sichuan Province in China has been yielding large amounts of fantastic Buddhist sculptures which have been vital to our knowledge on the history of the faith in China. These stone carvings date from the late Nanbei Chao period to the Qing dynasty, a timeframe spanning some 1400 years.

For quite some time not, it has been believed that the Tang dynasty produced some of the best artworks (both religious and non-religious), but the sculptures found in Sichuan dating from the Song dynasty are making scholars reflect on this old notion.

The Buddhist sculptures found at the Mingshan Temple in Anye are some of the best examples due to their quality, state of preservation, time-span, and their greater diversity. Ignored for quite some time by scholars due to their location in the underdeveloped and remote countryside of the eastern section of the province, they have now come under the spotlight and scholars are amazed at the wealth of knowledge they have added to.

The Mingshan Temple is located in the isolated and eastern part of Anyue, situated on the peak of Mount Hutou where the remains of an old fortified temple can be found (now partially restored). There are 13 sculptural groups here, totalling 63 small and large images. The first group contains a pair of 4meter high images that are seated - a crowned Buddha and a deity clad in imperial robes, seated next to each other in a good state of preservation.

The Buddha sits in a lotus position with hands held against his chest in a local variant of the abhiseka-mudrd (guanding yin), in which the left hand clasps the right fist. His hairstyle is in the iconic bee-hive fashion with a large, embellished open-work crown.

The god seated to the right of the Buddha, “clad in the wide-sleeved and flowing robes of a heavenly dignitary, sits with both feet touching the ground. He has a youthful expression on his face and he wears an imperial hat of the traditional shape, i.e., featuring a high crown surmounted by a flat, rectangular top”. One scholar has named him Dongyue Dadi (‘The Great Emperor of the Eastern Marchmount, or Lord of Mount Tai) but does not explain why so we are still unclear as to who he is.

Group Three consists of the bodhisattva Manjusrieight minor images of Buddhas and bodhisattvas sculpted in relief on the cliff wall. Manjusrl has been carved with a benevolent expression on his face and wears a detailed carved "Five Buddha Crown". On the cliff wall behind and above the bodhisattva is an inscription in large stylized characters reading: Xian shilifashen (The Manifestation of the Dharmakayao f Mafnjusri), something very rare as iconography in this fashion has not been found in this region.

These Buddhist sculptures have given us not only a wonderful insight into the religious history of the area, but shown that the Song dynasty artwork is just as powerful and glorious as it was under the Tang.

Bibliography:

Sorensen, Henrik. H. (1995) Buddhist Sculptures from the Song Dynasty at Mingshan Temple in Anyue, Sichuan, Artibus Asiae, Artibus Asiae Publishers.

The Ssu-Wei Figure in 6th century Chinese Buddhist Sculpture

The Ssu-Wei figure is a pensive figure in Buddhist iconography that spread from China to Korea and then onto Japan. It is a pensive figure which differs from other Chinese figures in his clothing and his posture.

He sits on a high stool with his right leg crossed over a pendant left leg; his left hand rests on his left foot while he gently touches his right cheek with one or two fingers of his right hand. He wears a tunic that is tightly belted at the waist with a flowing skirt. A large torque encircles his neck and will generally wear a small crown with long trailing ribbons.

These figures were generally positioned on smaller altars “capped by entwined dragon trees filled with apsaras, stupas, and other images. They are frequently attended by bodhisattvas, monks, and figures wearing conical caps; images of spirit kings”.

These figures evolved in north India, in the Gandhara, sometime in the 4^th century BCE. They are closely rated to the sculptures found at Mathura located to the southeast of Gandhara and there have been painted versions of the Ssu-Wei figures on cave walls in Central Asia at Kucha and Kizil.

The earliest Chinese portrayal of a Ssu-Wei figure was on a small bronze hand mirror that was found in Japan and dating to the 4^th century CE.

Ssu-Wei figures are heavily featured in Buddhist iconography, especially during the 5^th century CE and can be found in temples all over China, including the cave-temples at Tun-huang in Kansu province and at Yun-kang in Shansi province. At this point, they are shown being seated separately, sometimes with a kneeling horse, or with as attendants to Maitreya, the Buddha of the Future.

During the 6^th century, however, they have only been found so far in only two of the caves at Lung men in Honan province: once in the Wei-tzu Tung (516-528) and twice in the Lien-hua Tung (516-528). At both sites, these representations are the centre of a procession of patrons promoting the development of the cult of the Ssu-wei figure in the later part of the 6^th century in these parts.

“The confusion between ssu-wei figures and Maitreya found among the inscribed sculptures from Hsiu-te Ssu is symptomatic of the uncertainty centring on the iconography of the pensive figure in Chinese Buddhist art. The term ssu-wei has a long history in China. In non-Buddhist literature, it first appears in the biography of Tung Chung-shub in the Han Shu in reference to his consideration of the past; while in Buddhist writings it was originally found in the title of a lost sutra entitled the Ssu-wei Chingy which is believed to have been translated by the prolific Parthian monk An Shih-kaoe in the second century”.

Ssu-wei has not been found as an epithet of a Buddha or a bodhisattva in the extant version of the Chinese Tripitaka and, because of such, it is hard to know what the Ssu-Wei figure really means – making it one of the most tantalizing issues of Buddhist iconography.

Bibliography:

Leidy, Denise Patry (1990) The Ssu-Wei Figure in Sixth Century A.D. Chinese Buddhist Sculpture, Archives of Asian Art, University of Hawaii Press for the Asia Society.

An Overview of the Ancient People of Middle Eastern History

The Sumerians:

The Sumerians are one of the very earliest civilizations on earth, with evidence of their activity as early as 5,000 BCE. It is still unclear as to where they originated from, but it is believed they emerged somewhere from modern day Turkey and Iran. Of course, other scholars will differ on this.

According to Colin Renfew’s 1980 work, Archaeology and Language, he states that it was the spread of agriculture that allowed the spread of civilization and language.

By 3,500 BCE the Sumerians had established cities in the Fertile Crescent, the fertile strip of land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which allowed them to flourish. One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur, the home of the nomad called Abram (later known as Abraham) who went on to become regarded as the ancestor of today’s Semitic races. Ur was inhabited from around 5,000 to 300 BCE and is famous for its spectacular royal tombs. Dated from 2,500 BCE, the tombs revealed a wealth of artefacts that give us great insight into their lives.

The Sumerians are credited with the discovery of the wheel and are known for their ziggurats. In addition to this, the 60 minute hour and 360 degrees that form a circle were created by the Sumerians. The Sumerians also developed an early form of alphabet called cuneiform which is the oldest known written language to date.

The Hittites:

The Hittites were an Indo-European group from Anatolia, located in modern day Turkey. Scholars have credited them with introducing the Iron Age, using iron weapons instead of bronze and copper. Some have stated that the Hittites were the ancestors of the Kurds, but this is incredibly difficult to prove or disprove.

The Hittite empire reigned for 600 years, beginning sometime around 1800 BCE. They reached their heights in power and size around 1380 – 1350 BCE but were ultimately destroyed around 1200 BCE. Scholars have credited this to a group of people known as the Sea People, who are thought to have come from present day Libya and various areas of Northern Africa.

The Phoenicians:

The Phoenicians were a Semitic race who rose to greatness from modern day Lebanon in around 3000 BCE and they should not be confused with the separate Mediterranean race, the Philistines, who bordered them.

They were the great trading nation of the ancient world. They explored beyond the Pillars of Hercules and even got as far as Britain where they traded for tin. They founded the Carthaginian colony in Northern Africa, the home of the great military leader, Hannibal, one of the greatest enemies of Rome, as well as colonies in Sicily and Spain.

They are famous for their practice of child sacrifice to their gods and their chief god, Baal, was a source of continual temptation to the Jewish people. However, they are mostly famous for their invention of the first phonetic alphabet and the fact that all others stem from it.

Assyrians and Babylonians:

The Assyrians rose around 3000 BCE, the successors of the Sumerians. The Babylonians emerged sometime around 2000 BCE who conquered the Sumerian empire. The most famous Assyrian leader, Hammurabi, is known for his role of law-giver. It was his legal codes established the basics of fairness in punishment and justice.

For some time, neither Assyrians nor Babylonians had the upper hand. However, around 1200 BCE the Assyrians discovered iron, which they might have adopted from the Hittites. Their use of iron gave them the advantage over the other Bronze Age tribes.

In 745 BCE, the new king Tiglath-Pileser III began a series of campaigns which included the territory of the Jewish kingdom (known today as Israel). The Assyrian king Sennacherib moved the capital to Nineveh, situated opposite the modern day city of Mosul.

The Assyrian empire stretched from Turkey to the Persian Gulf and across to the sandy lands of Egypt. However, the neo-Babylonian group known as the Chaldeans began to cause trouble.

Under the reign of king Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylon became the capital once more. In 586 BCE, the Chaldeans captured the Jewish kingdom of Judea and sent the people into exile.

The Chaldeans imparted a great gift onto the world – the Aramaic language. The Book of Daniel is largely written in this language. It exists today in the liturgical language of Syriac but is a close relative of Arabic.

However, this great dynasty fell to Cyrus the Great in 539 BCE and so began the first Persian Achaemenid dynasty that used Aramaic as their official language.

A History of the Kaya Kingdom in Ancient Korea

The kingdom of Kaya was an important part in the history of Korea, although the kingdom itself was smaller than the other kingdoms that surrounded it. There has been some debate to whether Kaya was actually a kingdom or a confederation of city-states; for the purposes of this article I will refer it as a kingdom.

The Kaya kingdom was founded in around 42 CE in the southern Korean peninsula. According to literary texts, the foundation of the Kaya kingdom was very much steeped in mythology, as were other neighbouring kingdoms such as Silla.

The legend states that the land was ruled over by 9 chieftains, over a population of about 75,000. One day a group were washing themselves in a stream, preparing for a ritual. They heard a strange roaring voice calling them from the turtle-shaped mountains of Kooji-bong north of the stream. Only the sound like a voice of a human being was heard. The voice told them that he had been sent down from Heaven to rule over them. He told them to dig into the ground of Kooji-bong Mountain, dancing and chanting the incantation, "Turtle, turtle, stick out your head. If you don't, we'll roast and eat you.'

The people did as he asked, chanting the words given to them. Then they looked up toward the sky and saw a purple rope descending to the earth from Heaven. They went to it and found on the end of the rope a golden chest wrapped in a scarlet cloth. They opened the chest to find six golden eggs round as the sun. They were struck with delightful wonder and made a respectful bow to the eggs. They wrapped the chest again and took it to the house of one of the chieftains, Ahdokan, and placed it on a wooden bench (Song, p.84)

The next day, the people opened the chest to find that the eggs had turned into 6 golden boys who, after 10 days, had grown as tall as giants. One of these boys, Sooro, took the throne within a month, whose name means ‘First King of the Country’ and gave his name to the kingdom.

The archaeological remains of the Kaya kingdom represent the epitome of Korean Kobun culture - that is, burial mounds full of gold jewellery and artefacts imported from China and Central Asia (Pai, p.315).

Archaeological evidence has shown that the kingdom of Kaya had a thriving iron industry; a mass of armour, helmets and horse masks have been unearthed. It has been suggested that these finds could indicate that due to the small size of the Kaya kingdom, and the might of its neighbouring kingdoms, it underlies its need for self-defence.

The kingdom of Kaya was finally absorbed into the Silla kingdom in the 6th century CE, a conquest which marked the first step toward the uniting of the peninsula under Silla in 668 CE.

Bibliography:

Higham, Charles (2005) The Human Past – Complex Societies of east and Southeast Asia, Thames & Hudson, London.

Pai, Hyung II (1992) Culture Contact and Culture Change: The Korean Peninsula and Its Relations with the Han Dynasty Commandery of Lelang, World Archaeology, Taylor & Francis Ltd.

Song, Sun-hee (1974) The Koguryo Foundation Myth: An Integrated Analysis, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.

Ulalinka: the Oldest Palaeolithic Site in Siberia

Siberia is a land which is often overlooked in history and archaeology. This is such a shame as there are many wonderful sites and archaeological discoveries to be found. The oldest Palaeolithic site in Siberia is Ulalinka.

Ulalinka was discovered in 1961 and is situated on the right tributary of the Maima River, on the left side of the Ulalinka below the cemetery of Gorny Altaisk. The site is located on the edge of the Iogola Ridge, which is composed of flint limestone, quartzite and other rock material dating from the late Proterozoic Age.

The site has two cultural layers that were exposed to the ridge as well as well as in a pit in the hilltop dug to a depth of 5.8 meters. “This section’s strata differ in genesis and form three informal units. In one of the pits walls this section was as follows: (1) modern black soil, 0.70 m; (2) grey-brownish loam with worm tunnels and roots of vegetation, 0.3 m; (3) loessy light grey loam with columnar parting and lime nodules, 0.3 m; and (4) loessy light brown loam with lime nodules, 0.4 m”. Confirmed by finds of molluscs, these four layers make up a typical late Quaternary loam unit.

The first cultural layer is found on the lower part of this loam unit, which then proceeds with lumpy brown clay, 0.45 m, then brown clay with iron hydrates, followed by yellowish brown clay with crushed stone. These particular layers and make up the middle section and indicates, along with the general appearance of the loan unit, a much earlier Quaternary age.

The upper cultural layer has yielded a vast array of archaeological artefacts, particularly Palaeolithic implements. Some of these include a few flakes, fragments of a prismatic core, a point, and a small scraper of a semi-lunar blade made of obsidian. These tools are from an age younger then the Sartan glaciation, which is less than 25,000 years ago.

One of the interesting things about this site is the fact that the stoning inventory and the way the tools were manufactured are not only so primitive, but they are so peculiar that they do not belong in the usual classification of the Lower Palaeolithic typology. Even the classic western European nomenclature schemes cannot be applied here.

The archaeological data was enough to date the site, however geological, paleogeographical paleontological methods were used as well. These methods by did not produce a common date; some scholars believe the site be no more than 40,000 years old, others dated it to the Middle Pleistocene, whilst others believed to it today from the Early Pleistocene. “A further group of scholars assigned it to the Late Pliocene on the basis of paleogeographical environments and lithology of the cultural layer”. However, we know now that the site itself is definitely more than 690,000 years old, making Ulalinka the oldest Palaeolithic site in Siberia.

Bibliography:

Okladnikov, A. L. & Pospelova, G. A. (1982) Ulalinka, the Oldest Palaeolithic Site in Siberia, Current Anthropology, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.

Who Were the Hallstatts?

The Hallstatts were an ancient culture in Europe, from Western Europe to Eastern Europe. The Hallstatt culture has been dated to around c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE and emerged from the Bronze Age Urnfield culture. It is named after the town of Hallstatt when between 1846 and 1863, Johann Georg Ramsauer discovered a major cemetery belonging to it.

The Hallstatt culture has been divided into separate timeframes; Hallstatt A (1200 – 1000 BCE), Hallstatt B (1000 – 800 BCE), Hallstatt C (800 – 650 BCE) and Hallstatt D (650 – 475 BCE). The first two phases (A and B) are allocated to the broad Bronze Age epochs E and F in Central Europe and Hallstatt C and D to the Iron Age. It is then further divided into the Western Hallstatt and Eastern Hallstatt cultures.

Ancient cultures like the Hallstatts are somewhat difficult to recount their daily lives. However, archaeological excavations have revealed a mass of artefacts associated with these people so we can gain an insight into who they really were. In the final stages of the culture, cauldrons or deep bowls have been a typical find associated with them. They are generally equipped with one or two free-swinging handles and the pail either with horizontal, hydria-type handles, or the free-swinging handles. Designs on these types of objects are shown with water bird or the bird proteome with circle disk, which could indicate an Oriental influence according to scholars.

Much of what we know about the Hallstatt culture comes from the prehistoric salt-mines and the extensive cemetery which consists of over 1000 graves. In addition to this, no other culture can offer as much information into understanding temperate Europe at the time when iron first began to be used in Europe (around the seventh and sixth centuries BCE).

The bodies found had been either buried or cremated (roughly half and half in numbers). The skeletons of those who had been buried were sketched and then, unfortunately, thrown away by early scholars. Fortunately, the exact position of grave goods relative to the skeleton was often recorded and sketched. Experts believe that it was the elite social classes that preferred to be cremated rather than buried.

Trade appears to be an important aspect of the Hallstatt culture; the iron flat axe is a typical tool of theirs and distribution areas can be found in Austria, Hungary, Slovenia and Bosnia. Trade of their items seems to have spread across most of western and eastern Europe, emphasising the importance of this remarkable culture.

Bibliography:

Foltiny, Stephen (19761) Athens and the East Hallstatt Region: Cultural Interrelations at the Dawn of the Iron Age, American Journal of Archaeology, Archaeological Institute of America.

Hodson, Frank Roy (1977) Quantifying Hallstatt: Some Initial Results, American Antiquity, Society for American Archaeology.

The History of the Eka People in China

The world knows that China is one of the few countries in the world where there is a multitude of different ethnic groups, with the Han, Zhuang and the Manchus consisting of the highest numbers. There are a number of smaller groups, including the Yi people, which some Westerners may have heard of in passing, but many do not realise that there are dozens, sometimes even hundreds, of smaller minority groups which are counted in these larger ethnicities.

The Eka people are one of these. With a population of around 3,000 people, the Eka have been placed in the larger Yi minority group, along with over 100 other groups. Although a relatively small group, they are the largest Yi people to live in Shuangjiang County of Yunnan Province in southwest China. This village is in a largely inaccessible mountainous region where you can only reach via foot. There are a few other Eka people living in nearby villages.

Around 300 years ago, the Eka people moved to this location from the surrounding areas of Kunming City. When they moved here, most of the land was unclaimed but as soon as they started working the land and cultivating it, there was an increased migration of Han and other people into the area. They drove off the Eka people who retreated into the mountains where they made their home.

The Eka people are polytheists, worshipping a great many of deities and spirits. They share many similarities with the other Yi tribal beliefs in the surrounding areas. For three years after someone has died, an effigy made from wood, the root of a lotus or hemp of the deceased, is kept in a box or placed under the roof. This effigy is infused with magical protection and after three years it is thrown away since it is then that the soul of the deceased is judged by either the gods or one singular deity.

The Eka people have their own dialect, which is a Lahu language. Some, due to the close contact with the Han population, speak Mandarin Chinese. An alternative name for the Eka is Menghuaren.

A History of the Afar People

The Afar people are one of the nine officially recognised ethnic groups of Ethiopia, although there are numbers of Afar in the Ste of Eritrea and the Republic of Djibouti in the Horn of Africa. There are an estimated 1.5 million Afar in these regions, and have played an important part in the territorial politics of the Horn of Africa.

'Afar' is the name the peoples in this article give themselves, rather than 'Danakil' or 'Adal' by which their traditional adversaries know them. Danakil is used specifically for the northern Afar while Adal (or Adel) is used for the southern Afar. Although a number of this ethnic group have migrated to the cities, the majority have remained true to their nomadic pastoralist roots.

One of the Afar’s claims to fame is due to an anthropological find in the Afar Depression. In 1974, anthropologists discovered a ‘new species’ of man at Hadar in the Awash Valley in Ethiopia. This new species was termed Australopithecus afarensis ("afar ape-man"), and is believed to have walked around Eastern Africa between 2.9 to 3.8 million years ago. The body was found to be female and named Lucy. Lucy was able to walk upright on a human-like body but still retained a small ape-like head and primitive teeth.

Despite their decentralized political structure, the Afar have remained cohesive in their culture. One important aspect of such unity has been the custom of cross-cousin marriage, with a son being required to marry a maternal uncle's daughter as his first wife (Harbeson, p.483). Both boys and girls are required to undergo circumcision.

The first non-African presence with the Afars was with the Islamic world, as early as the 10th century CE. Today, the religion of the Afars is Sunni Islam.

Today, the Afar have not forgotten the loss of grazing lands or the invasion of highland agriculturalists. At least partly for that reason they have responded with ambivalence to Ethiopian government pressures to participate in rural modernization programmes (Harbeson, p.479).

Bibliography:

Flood, Glynn (1975) Nomadism and Its Future: The ‘Afar, RAIN, Royal Anthropological Institute for Great Britain and Ireland.

Harbeson, John. W. (1978) Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: The Afar of the Awash Valley, African affairs, Oxford University Press on behalf of the Royal African Society.

Science News (1974) New Species of Man: Ancestors from ‘Afar’, Society for Science and the Public.

A History of Korean Funerary Rites

In all cultures across the world, funerary rites and traditions are very important once someone has died. In Korea, from antiquity to today’s contemporary society, the rites associated with death and funerals make up a very important element. This article will discuss the funerary rites surrounding the concept of ancestral belief in Korea.

In Korea, when a person is just about to die, he is taken to the warmer part of the house and into his deathbed. He is then dressed into a clean cloth called ch'ongo chongch’im and his family gather at his side. The Koreans believe that the time and place are important in the afterlife, just as the date and time of birth are important during a person's lifetime, and they go to great lengths to determine these as accurately as possible. If the dying individual has any last words, it is the child’s duty to record these.

Once the individual has died, all ornaments from the body are removed, the hair is loosened and the family weeps for the death of their loved one. One of the family members will then take the white upper garment that the deceased was wearing and then, facing north, climb onto the roof of the house. They will call out the name of the deceased in a loud voice, followed by the word ‘pok’ (which literally means ‘return’). After calling out in this way, they will pull the white cloth up onto the roof. This ritual is known as the “ko bok”, the calling back the spirit of the dead.

After this rite has been completed, the family will then prepare a feast for the messengers (saja) who will escort the deceased to the other side. Traditionally, this meal consists of three bowls of rice, vegetables, soy sauce, money and three pairs of straw shoes. It is positioned either in the middle area of the inside garden or outside the main gate of the house of the deceased.

The body of the deceased is then moved from his deathbed and onto a board known as the chilsong-p’an. The board “is the board of the deity of the seven stars, who controls the life of men”. The head is turned to the north and the thumbs are tied together with string, as are the two big toes. One of the children will then put on one sleeve of the upper garment – the right side if the deceased was his father, the left side if his mother. “A person experienced in these matters will make a spirit, called the honbaek with string or paper. If string is used three strings of different colours will be knotted together in a fixed form, and if the material is paper it will be a white paper folded in a fixed form. This knot, or folded paper as the case may be, is placed in a small box called the honbaek box, or “spirit box."

The word "hon" refers to the spirit or soul, and “baek" has the same meaning. Sometimes one of these words will be dropped, with either "hon" or "baek" appearing alone, and sometimes both words are used”.

The most important ritual is that of washing the body, known as “sup”. One of the mourners will bring a bowl of warm water mixed with mugwort or juniper and while either two or four people hold the corners of a blanket covering the deceased, the body is washed thoroughly with a piece of cotton or cloth soaked in the warm water. After this, the hair and fingernails will be cut and placed into four small bags known as choballang that are later placed into the coffin.

The deceased is then dressed in his funeral clothes. The person who is performing this rite will put “wet rice to the mouth of the deceased with a willow spoon, saying loudly, "a hundred sacks of rice" at the first spoonful to be held up, "a thousand sacks of rice" with the second spoon and "ten thousand sacks of rice" with the third”. After this a coin will be placed into their mouth. The body is then bound in a a long cloth known as yom. Relatives and friends of the deceased will place money into the twisted sections of the yom as it is believed that the paper money will be used when the deceased passes through the twelve gates of the otherworld.

The body is finally placed into his coffin and is covered with coverlets. “The corpse is laid on top of one of these, called the "coverlet of earth," and is covered with another, called the " coverlet of heaven." The deceased's old clothes will be put into the coffin next to the head and legs to fill the empty spaces. When the cover of the coffin is nailed down with wooden nails the offspring will weep loudly. The coffin itself is now bound with a straw rope around its upper, middle and lower parts”.

The last rite that is practiced is done when the coffin is taken out of the room. Four men will take the coffin and shake it slowly up and down toward the four corners of the room. When it is taken from the room a gourd will be destroyed in front of it, in the attempt to drive away evil spirits.

There are a number of different rites and rituals that are practiced in Korea when someone has died. The ritual of washing the body is the most important, as it is a rite of purification, cleaning the polluted body whereas the act of binding is one that symbolises separation. These rites have been practiced for generations and continue to be practiced, for it is believed that they will aid the spirit of the deceased to pass through the twelve gates of the otherworld and arrive in heaven.

Bibliography:

Lee, Kwang Kyu (1984) The Concept of Ancestors and Ancestor Worship in Korea, Asian Folklore Studies, Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture.

The Role of the Chinese Dynasties

For over two thousand years, various dynasties ruled over China. No other government system in the world lasted as long as the imperial Chinese rule. Dynasties, or ruling houses, were said to be given the Mandate of Heaven, the right to rule by the gods. When the emperors fell out of favour (shown by natural disasters, rebellions etc), then the gods would send a new ruling house to govern China, ensuring the empire would continue.

Each dynasty became a role for the Chinese people – the achievements and accomplishments that occurred during its rule were something for the people and the emperor to learn from. The traditional picture for most people is a united country unchanging through the centuries. Unfortunately, this reality is flawed – China’s history is fractured by reality.

The Xia Dynasty (c. 2200 – 1600 BCE)

Long thought a mythical dynasty there is increasing archaeological evidence to confirm that the Xia dynasty did actually exist. The founder of the dynasty, Yu, is still shrouded in myth. Legends state that he was given the authority to rule by Shun “who also received rule non-hereditarily and without violence; but the Xia were overthrown by the Shang and all subsequent dynasties were founded by overthrow and continued hereditarily”. The last ruler of the Xia dynasty was Jie who was overthrown by Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty. This dynasty was said to be a time of peace and prosperity.

The Shang Dynasty (c. 1600 – 1122 BCE)

The Shang dynasty was founded by Tang who asserted his claim to rule by stating that the Xia had lost the favour of the Lord on High, thereby losing the Mandate of Heaven. Around 30 emperors ruled and in this time bronze manufacturing became a hallmark of their dynasty (although it should be stated that bronze work was probably developed before their rule). The worship of ‘The Lord on High’ was introduced; he presided over all the other gods and humans on earth. Human sacrifices were no longer performed and the foundations of Chinese writing were established.

The Zhou Dynasty (Western Zhou 1122 – 770 BCE, Eastern Zhou 770 – 255 BCE)

The Zhou Dynasty can be divided into two periods, the Western Zhou and the Eastern Zhou. The Zhou had rose from the west and had violently overthrown the Shang dynasty, asserting their claim by “citing the precedent of a Xia Dynasty overthrown by the Shang and arguing that the mandate of Heaven is not constant”. They adopted the administration methods of the Shang and their way of life including their writing techniques. However, instead of ruling over a united country, they ruled over several less powerful kingdoms and developed something similar to that of a feudal system. It was this period that saw the introduction to the god Tian (heaven).

The Eastern Zhou period begins with the transfer of the capital eastwards to Luoyang (in Henan Province) were new cities were established. This was due to increasing pressure from nomadic raiders and internal pressures. This period can be further divided into two periods – the Spring and Autumn Annals (770 – 480 BCE) and the Warring States Period (480 – 221 BCE). Despite the constant warfare, this dynasty saw the development of agriculture, irrigations and ironworking.

The Qin Dynasty (221 – 207 BCE)

The first imperial dynasty, Qin Shi Huangdi united China under his firm and tyrannical rule by establishing a series of victories over the Warring States. On his death, he was buried in his mausoleum and guarded by the famous terracotta warriors. His dynasty ended 14 years after its foundation, ending with his weak son. One Confucian writer stated the dynasty fell “because it failed to display humanity and righteousness, or to realise that there is a difference between the power to attack and the power to consolidate”. The truth is that the dynasty fell because it tried to do too much too soon and Shi Huangdi’s son was not as strong as his father. Although Shi Huangdi has been vilified by later dynasties, he has always remained the epitome for the power needed to rule over China.

The Han Dynasty (The Western Han 206 BCE – 9 CE, Wang Men Period 9 – 23 CE, The Eastern Han 25 – 220 CE)

The Han dynasty can be broken into three parts; the Western Han, the Wang Mang period and the Eastern Han period. Overall, this was the longest imperial dynasty. It was founded by a peasant man named Liu Bang and under the rule of Wudi the Silk Road was opened up which allowed for international trading from Europe across Asia. The period under the rule of Wang Meng has long been considered a time of usurpation by Chinese history. However, the facts are that he was a practical and well-meaning ruler but his policies led to problems with the establishment of the elite from the Han.

The Eastern Han period begins with the crowning of the rebel leader Liu Xiu who was renamed Guang Wudi. He moved the capital from Chang’an to Luoyang and established Confucianism as the foundation of his society. New crops were introduced and paper was first created in this period but the dynasty fell due to internal fighting.

Era of Disunity (220 – 581 CE) (This period includes the Three kingdoms Period, the Jin Dynasty, the Sixteen Kingdoms period and the Southern & Northern Dynasties).

Three Kingdoms Period (220 – 280 CE)

This era was part of the era known as the Era of Disunity. It saw the rise and fall of several kingdoms and was a time of great hardships, war, division, and economic distress. It also saw the mass movements of refugees from the north to the south to escape the constant wars and power struggles between the kingdoms. The three kingdoms were Wei (220 – 64 CE), Wu (222 – 80 CE) and Shu Han (221 – 63 CE).

The Jin Dynasty (265 – 420 CE)

The Jin dynasty was founded by Emperor Wu who offered a brief respite from the disunity experienced; however, it was not to last for the country soon delved back into chaos. The Jin dynasty can be divided into two periods; the Western Jin (265 – 316 CE) and the Eastern Jin (316 – 420 CE).

The Sixteen Kingdoms Period (304 – 439 CE)

This period saw the rise and fall of 16 kingdoms or states. It is known as one of the most devastating periods of time in Chinese history due to the constant warfare and hardships. Despite the foundation of the Northern Wei kingdom, it is not classed as part of the 16 kingdoms.

The Southern & Northern Dynasty (420 – 589)

The last in a series of divided rule, the Southern and Northern dynasty continued to be a period of political and civil chaos. Despite the constant disunity, this era also saw the spread of Mahayana Buddhism and the flourishing of arts. This period marks of the end of the Era of Disunity.

The Sui Dynasty (581 – 618 CE)

The Sui dynasty, founded by Duke Yang Jian (renamed Wendi) led to the reunification of China but only lasted for 40 years. During its reign, the emperors exhausted the treasury and experienced the disastrous attempts to annex Korea. It fell due to revolts and internal pressures.

The Tang Dynasty (618 – 908 CE)

Known as the Golden Age of Chinese history, the Tang period embarked on a series of expansion campaigns that stretched from Central Asia to Korea. Neighbouring countries acknowledged the strength and power of China and used their government as a model for their own. This was the period that saw its only female ruler, Wu Zetian. Porcelain became a speciality and was in demand all over Asia. However, the golden age did not last; during the mid 8th century there was a long rebellion that weakened the dynasty and growing internal pressures led to its downfall.

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Dynasty (907 – 60 CE)

China fell into chaos once again. In this period of turmoil and pandemonium, there were a series of kingdoms and dynasties that quickly followed after each other. Five dynasties ruled north China and the south were carved up into ten kingdoms. Despite this, much of the social and administrative organization remained the same.

The Song Dynasty (The Northern Song 960 – 1126 CE, The Southern Song 1127 – 1279 CE)

The country was reunited once more under a dynasty that would also be divided in two. This period saw a reduction in the area under imperial rule but also saw the advancement in certain areas. These included agriculture, tea cultivation, textiles, urbanizations, and the spread of printing. The wealth achieved in this time was probably unequal to any other country on earth at the time. However, it could not withstand the armies of Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan.

The Yuan Dynasty (1279 – 1368 CE)

The Mongolian dynasty was founded by Kublai Khan, the grandson of the great Genghis Khan. He managed to legitimise his rule by balancing out the foreign influences with Chinese terms. Arts flourished during the Mongolian rule but there was constant warfare, disease and natural disasters that led to its decline.

The Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE)

The last Chinese dynasty, the Ming era was marked by prosperity, especially in its early era. There was a huge population growth, literacy increased and the establishment of neo-Confucianism provided the foundation of a stable society. Later on, the fine arts would reach new heights. However, the extreme addictions of some Ming emperors cost China, both in administration and monetary wise. There were constant power struggles in the later Ming period and a series of floods, droughts, crop failures, natural disasters and invasions from the north led to the fall of the ruling house.

The Qing Dynasty (1644 – 1912 CE)

The Qing dynasty was founded by the Manchus, a nomadic people from the north. Theirs would be the last imperial dynasty but it was under them that some of the greatest Chinese works of art were produced. The Manchus adopted many aspects of Chinese government and formed a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural realm before the end of their reign. However, the Chinese saw their rulers as barbarians and there were serious social unhappiness. The dynasty ended with a series of mass humiliations caused by the Japanese and Europeans and the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor of China, by the empress dowager Cixi. This marks the end of over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China.